Encyclopedia Of Herbal Medicine By Andrew Chevallier

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Andrew Chevallier, fnimh

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ENCYCLOP E D I A OF

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HERBAL

MEDICINE

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take for indigestion
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550 HERBS and REMEDIES for COMMON AILMENTS

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

HERBAL

MEDICINE

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

HERBAL

MED C NE

ANDREW CHEVALLIER

FNIMH

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IMPORTANT NOTICE

Do not try self-diagnosis or attempt self-treatment for serious or long-term problems without first consulting
a qualified medical herbalist or medical practitioner as appropriate. Do not take any herb without first
checking the cautions in the relevant herb entry (see pp. 56-283) and the Essential Information on
pp. 298-299. Do not exceed any dosages recommended. Always consult a professional practitioner if
symptoms persist. If taking prescribed medicines, seek professional medical advice before using herbal
remedies. Take care to correctly identify plants and do not harvest restricted or banned species. So far as the
author is aware, the information given is correct and up to date as of July 2016. Practice, laws, and regulations
all change, and the reader should obtain up-to-date professional advice on any such issues. In addition, this
book contains general information on growing cannabis, which is a controlled substance in North America
and throughout much of the world. As the use and cultivation of cannabis and its derivative products can
carry heavy penalties, you should research your local laws before using the information in this book. The
author and the publisher expressly disclaim any liability, loss, or risk, personal or otherwise, which is incurred
as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents of this book.

Third American Edition, 2016
First American Edition, 1996
This edition published in the United States in 2016 by
DK Publishing, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014

Copyright © 1996, 2001,2016 Dorling Kindersley Limited
Text copyright © 1996, 2001,2016 Andrew Chevallier
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Contents

6 Introduction

8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

10 How Medicinal Plants Work
14 Active Constituents

17 Quality Control

18 Early Origins to the 19th Century
28 20th Century Onward

32 Herbal Traditions of the World
32 Europe

36 India and the Middle East
40 China, Japan, and Southeast Asia
44 Africa

46 Australia and New Zealand
48 North America
52 South America

54 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

A visual guide to 100 key herbs from around the world with
details of their habitat, constituents, actions, traditional
and current uses, and information on the latest research.

Also included are key preparations and practical self-help uses.

156 OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

450 other herbs from different herbal traditions with descriptions
of their therapeutic properties and past and present uses.

284 HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

286 Growing Medicinal Plants
288 Harvesting & Processing
290 Making Herbal Remedies

298 Using Herbal Remedies Safely

299 Remedies for Common Ailments
320 Consulting an Herbal Practitioner

321 Glossary

322 Bibliography

323 General Index

332 Index of Herbs by Ailment

336 Useful Addresses & Acknowledgments

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Introduction

In the twenty years since the first edition of this encyclopedia in 1996, herbal medicine
has gone through unprecedented change. Herbs, which have always been the principal form
of medicine in developing countries, have again become popular in the developed world,
as people strive to stay healthy in the face of chronic stress and pollution, and to treat illness
with medicines that work in concert with the body’s defenses. A quiet revolution has been
taking place. Tens of millions of people now take herbs such as ginkgo ( Ginkgo bilobo, p. 100)
to help maintain mental and physical health, and increasingly people consult trained herbal
professionals and naturopaths for chronic or routine health problems. Increasingly too,
scientific evidence is accumulating to show that herbal medicines can provide treatment that
is as effective as conventional medicines but with few side effects. Sales of herbal medicines
continue to grow year after year—by over 50 percent in the U.S. since 2000—and several
mainstream pharmaceutical companies now manufacture and market herbal medicines.

Plant Medicines

The variety and sheer number of plants with therapeutic properties are quite astonishing.

Some 50,000 to 70,000 plant species, from lichens to towering trees, have been used at
one time or another for medicinal purposes. Today, Western herbal medicine still makes use
of hundreds of native European plants, as well as many hundreds of species from other
continents. In Ayurveda (traditional Indian medicine) about 2,000 plant species are
considered to have medicinal value, while the Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists over 5,700
traditional medicines, mostly of plant origin.

About 500 herbs are still employed within conventional medicine, although whole plants are
rarely used. In general, the herbs provide the starting material for the isolation or synthesis
of conventional drugs. Digoxin, for example, which is used for heart failure, was isolated
from common foxglove (Digitalis purpurea, p. 202), and the contraceptive pill was
synthesized from constituents found in wild yam (Dioscorea villosa, p. 91).

Ecological Factors

The increased use of medicinal herbs has important environmental implications. Growing
herbs as an organic crop offers new opportunities for farmers, and sometimes, especially
in developing countries, opportunities for whole communities. In northeastern Brazil,
for example, community-run herb gardens grow medicinal herbs that are sold to local hospitals.
Doctors at the hospital then prescribe these medicines for their patients.

The rise in popularity of herbal medicines, however, also directly threatens the survival
of some wild species. Demand for goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis, p. 105) has become so
great that it now fetches around $ 140 a pound (£ 170 a kilo). It was a common plant in the
woodlands of northern America two centuries ago, but is now an endangered species, with
its survival in the wild threatened by overcollection. This example is by no means unique,
and, sadly, many species are similarly threatened across the planet. The extinction of plant
species as a result of over-intensive collecting is nothing new. The herb silphion, a member
of the carrot family, was used extensively as a contraceptive by the women of ancient Rome.

6

Silphion proved difficult to cultivate and was gathered from the wild in such large quantities
that it became extinct during the 3rd century ce.

Today if herbal medicine continues to grow at its present rate, it is imperative that
manufacturers, suppliers, practitioners, and the public use only produce that has been
cultivated or wildcrafted in an ecologically sensitive manner.

About This Book

In the past, books on herbal medicine have tended to focus either on the traditional and
folkloric use of plants or on their active constituents and pharmacology The Encyclopedia
of Herbal Medicine, which features over 550 plants, aims to cover both aspects. It discusses
each plant’s history, traditions, and folklore, and explains in simple terms what is known from
scientific research about its active constituents, actions, and potential new uses.

It is easy when concentrating on the scientific aspect of herbal medicine to forget that
much, in some cases all, that we currently know about a particular plant results from its
traditional use. Moreover, even when a plant has been well researched, herbal medicines are
so complex and variable that what is currently known is rarely definitive, but rather a sound
pointer as to how it works. Sometimes the traditional use, insofar as it is based on the
experience of practitioners, provides an insight into how best to use an herb that is missing
from scientific knowledge alone. Herbal medicine is, after all, both a science and an art.

In choosing the plants profiled in the Encyclopedia, the aim has been to select herbs that are
commonly used in different parts of the world and are considered to have particular health
benefits. The index of key medicinal plants (pp. 54-1 55) contains many herbs that are
readily available in health stores and pharmacies, for example St. John’s wort ( Hypericum
perforatum, p. 106). It also includes herbs that are more commonly known as foods, such as
lemon ( Citrus limon, p. 82), but which, nonetheless, are valuable medicines. The index of other
medicinal plants (pp. 156-283) contains some less commonly known but important medicinal
herbs, such as andrographis (Andrographis paniculata, p. I 67), a traditional Indian medicinal
plant that stimulates recovery from infection and supports normal liver function.

A global overview of the history of herbal medicine puts the development of different
herbal traditions from earliest origins to the present day into perspective. This is complemented
with features on herbal medicine in Europe, India, China, Africa, Australia, and the Americas,
providing a rounded picture of herbal medicine worldwide.

Herbal medicine is nothing if not practical in its approach, and the Encyclopedia has a
detailed self-help section with advice on preparing and using herbal medicines to treat
a range of common health problems.

If more people come to appreciate the immense richness of the world of herbal
medicine and are able to benefit from the curative properties of medicinal herbs, this
book will have achieved its aim.

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THE

DEVELOPMENT
OF HERBAL
MEDICINE

From the earliest times, herbs have been prized for their pain-relieving and
healing abilities, and today we still rely on the curative properties of plants
in about 75 percent of our medicines. Over the centuries, societies around
the world have developed their own traditions to make sense of medicinal
plants and their uses. Some of these traditions and medicinal practices may
seem strange and magical, others appear rational and sensible, but all are
attempts to overcome illness and suffering, and to enhance quality of life.

“A wise man ought
to realize that health
is his most valuable
possession.”

Hippocrates

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

How Medicinal Plants Work

Many of the thousands of plant species growing throughout the world have medicinal
uses, containing active constituents that have a direct action on the body. They are used
both in herbal and conventional medicine and offer benefits that pharmaceutical drugs
often lack, helping to combat illness and support the body’s efforts to regain good health.

There is no doubt that in extreme situations, the treatments
devised by modern medicine can offer an unparalleled
opportunity to relieve symptoms and save lives. A newspaper
article in 1993 described the terrible conditions in a hospital
in war-torn Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Deprived of conventional medical supplies and drugs, the
doctors were forced to use a well-known European herb,
valerian ( Valeriana officinalis, p. 148), as a painkiller for the
wounded and as an anesthetic. Valerian is an effective herbal
medicine for anxiety and nervous tension, but it is woefully
inadequate as an analgesic or anesthetic.

Orthodox pharmaceutical medicines sustain life and counter
infections in situations where other types of treatment
may have little to offer. Modern surgical techniques, such as
keyhole surgery and plastic surgery, and the whole range of
diagnostics and of life-support machinery now available, can
all be used to improve the chances of recovery from serious
illness or injury.

The Benefits of Herbal Medicine

Yet despite the dramatic advances and advantages of
conventional medicine, or biomedicine as it is also known,
it is clear that herbal medicine has much to offer. We tend
to forget that in all but the past 70 years or so, humans
have relied almost entirely on plants to treat all manner
of illnesses, from minor problems such as coughs and colds
to life-threatening diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria.

Opium poppy fields in Tasmania. Opium, derived from the seed capsules of the opium
poppy, yields the narcotic alkaloids morphine and codeine, powerful painkillers that are
widely used in conventional medicine.

Today, herbal remedies are coming back into prominence
because the efficacy of conventional medicines such as
antibiotics, which once had near-universal effectiveness against
serious infections, is on the wane. Over the years, infectious
organisms have developed resistance to synthesized drugs,
and the herb sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua, p. 67) and
its active constituent artemisinin, for example, are now the
standard treatment for malaria in tropical areas where
the protozoa causing the infection no longer respond to
conventional treatment.

Herbal medicine often complements conventional
treatments, providing safe, well-tolerated remedies for chronic
illnesses. It is experiencing a dramatic renaissance in Western
countries, partly because no effective conventional treatment
as yet exists for many chronic illnesses, such as asthma,
arthritis, and irritable bowel syndrome. In addition, concern
over the side effects of biomedicine is encouraging people
to look for more gentle forms of treatment. It is estimated
that 10-2096 of hospital patients in the West are there due
to the side effects of conventional medical treatment.

Using Herbs Wisely

Most commonly used herbs are extremely safe to use.

But some plants can produce side effects and, like all
medicines, herbal remedies must be treated with respect.

It is essential to take or use certain plants only under the
guidance of a well-trained practitioner, to avoid adverse
consequences. Ma huang (Ephedra sinica, p. 95), for example,
can be extremely toxic at the wrong dosage, and comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, p. 138), a very popular herb in the
past, is thought to cause severe or even fatal liver damage
in rare circumstances. When an herbal medicine is used
correctly, however, the chances of developing a serious side
effect are remote.

Potent Plant Chemicals

The ability of an herbal medicine to affect body systems
depends on the chemical constituents that it contains.
Scientists first started extracting and isolating chemicals from
plants in the 18th century, and since that time we have
grown accustomed to looking at herbs and their effects in
terms of the active constituents they contain. This Encyclopedia
is no exception, providing details of all the main active
constituents of the medicinal herbs featured and explaining
their actions.

Research into isolated plant
constituents is of great
importance, for it has given rise
to many of the world’s most
useful drugs. Tubocurarine, the
most powerful muscle relaxant
in existence, is derived from
pareira ( Chondrodendron
tomentosum, p. 189), and the
strongest painkiller of all,
morphine, comes from opium
poppy ( Papaver somniferum,
p. 244). Many anesthetics
are also derived from plants—
for example cocaine comes
from coca ( Erythroxylum
coca, p. 206).

Today, biomedicine still
relies on plants rather than
the laboratory for at least 25%
of its medicines, and many of
these are among the most effective of all conventional drugs.

It is hard to think of a world deprived of the anti malarial
properties of quinine (derived from Cinchona spp., p. 80); or
the heart remedy digoxin (from Digitalis spp., p. 202); or the
cough-relieving properties of ephedrine (from Ephedra sinica,
p. 95), which is present in many prescription and over-the-
counter cold remedies. These and many other conventional
medicines are all derived from isolated plant constituents.

Value of Whole Plants

Although it is important to understand the actions of
individual active constituents, herbal medicine, unlike bio¬
medicine, is ultimately about the use and actions of whole
plants—medicines that are literally god- or goddess-given,

Ginkgo, one of the oldest known plant
species, Improves the circulation of blood
to the head.

Cultivation of medicinal plants in Cameroon. Scientific research indicates that
whole-plant preparations may often be gentler and more effective remedies
than isolated plant chemicals.

rather than developed in a laboratory. In the same way that
taking a watch apart and identifying its key parts will not show
you how it works as a whole, dividing up a medicinal herb
into its constituent parts cannot explain exactly how it works
in its natural form. The whole herb is worth more than the
sum of its parts, and scientific research is increasingly showing
that the active constituents of many herbs, for example those
in ginkgo ( Ginkgo biloba, p. 100), interact in complex ways to
produce the therapeutic effect of the remedy as a whole.

Plants contain hundreds, if not thousands, of different
constituent chemicals that interact in complex ways.

Frequently, we simply do not know in detail how a particular
herb works—even though its medicinal benefit is well
established. The pharmacological approach to understanding
how whole herbs work is like working on a puzzle where only
some of the pieces have been provided. Furthermore,
although it is very useful to know that a plant contains certain
active constituents, such information can be misleading on its
own. For example, Chinese rhubarb ( Rheum palmatum,
p. 126) is a commonly used laxative, containing
anthraquinones that irritate the gut wall and stimulate bowel
movement. This laxative effect, however, occurs only when
large quantities of the herb are used. At lower doses other
constituents, notably tannins, which dry and tighten up
mucous membranes in the gut, have greater effect. As a
result, Chinese rhubarb works in two apparently opposite
ways depending on the dosage: as a laxative at moderate to
high doses; to treat diarrhea at a lower dose.

This example reveals a couple of fundamental truths
about herbal medicine. Firstly, the experience of the herbal
practitioner and of the patient often provide the most
reliable guide to the medicinal effect of individual herbs.
Secondly, the value of a medicinal herb cannot be reduced
simply to a list of its active constituents.

Plants as Foods & Medicines

In general, the human body is much better suited to
treatment with herbal remedies than with isolated chemical
medicines. We have evolved side-by-side with plants over
hundreds of thousands of years, and our digestive system
and physiology as a whole are geared to digesting and
utilizing plant-based foods, which often have a medicinal
value as well as providing sustenance.

The dividing line between “foods” and “medicines” may
not always be clear. Are lemons, papayas, onions, and oats
foods or medicines? The answer, very simply, is that they
are both. Lemon ( Citrus limon, p. 82) improves resistance
to infection; papaya ( Carica papaya, p. 183) is taken in some
parts of the world to expel worms; onion ( Allium cepa,
p. 164) relieves bronchial infections; and oats (Avena sativa,
p. 175) support convalescence. Indeed, herbal medicine
comes into its own when the distinctions between foods
and medicines are removed.

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•: HOW MEDICINAL PLANTS WORK

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Though we might eat a bowl of oatmeal oblivious to the
medicinal benefits, it will, nonetheless, increase stamina, help
the nervous system to function correctly, provide a good
supply of B vitamins, and maintain regular bowel function.
A similar range of benefits is provided by many of the other
gentler-acting herbs listed in the Encyclopedia.

Herbal Treatments

The strategies that herbal practitioners adopt to prevent
illness or restore health in their patients are different in the
many and varied herbal traditions across the planet, but
the effects that herbal medicines have within the body to
improve health do not vary. There are many thousands
of medicinal plants in use throughout the world, with a
tremendous range of actions and degrees of potency. Most
have a specific action on particular body systems and are
known to be suitable for treating certain types of ailments.
See p. 13 for specific actions.

Digestion, Respiration, & Circulation

Improving the quality of the diet is often an essential starting
point in sustaining or regaining good health. The saying “You
are what you eat” is by and large true, though herbalists
prefer to qualify it, saying “You are what you absorb from
what you eat.” Herbal medicines not only provide nutrients,
but when needed they also strengthen and support the
action of the digestive system, speeding up the rate of
processing food and improving the absorption of nutrients.

The body requires another kind of “nutrient” to
function—oxygen. The lungs and respiratory system can
be helped with herbs that relax the bronchial muscles and
stimulate respiration.

Once taken in by the body, nutrients and medicines are
carried to the body’s estimated one hundred trillion cells.
The circulatory system has a remarkable ability to adapt
to an endlessly shifting pattern of demand. At rest, the flow
of blood is mainly toward the center of the body, while
when active, the muscles in the limbs make huge demands.
Herbal medicines work to encourage circulation in
particular ways. Some, for example, encourage blood to
flow to the surface of the body; others stimulate the heart
to pump more efficiently; while others relax the muscles of
the arteries, lowering blood pressure.

Clearing Toxicity & Soothing Skin

After circulation has carried nutrients to the cells, waste
matter must be removed. All too often in our polluted world,
high levels of toxicity in the body are an underlying cause of
ill health, and herbalists use a wide range of cleansing herbs
that improve the body’s ability to remove toxins. Perhaps
the finest example of a detoxifying herb is burdock (Arctium
lappa, p. 65), which is used extensively in both Western and
Chinese medicine. Once herbs such as this reduce the toxic

“load,” the body is able to invest greater resources
in repairing and strengthening damaged tissue and
weakened organs.

The skin also plays an important role in good health.
Antiseptic plants fight infection, while vulnerary (wound¬
healing) herbs such as comfrey (Symphytum officinale,
p. 138) encourage blood clotting and help speed the healing
of wounds.

Nervous, Endocrine, & Immune Systems

Good health depends on having a healthy, balanced nervous
system. In order to ensure long-term good health of the
nervous system, it is important to adapt well to life’s daily
demands, to avoid excessive anxiety, worry, or depression,
and to get sufficient rest and exercise.

The latest research shows that the nervous system does
not work in isolation but is complemented by the endocrine
system, which controls the release of a whole symphony
of hormones, including the sex hormones, which control
fertility and often affect vitality and mood. The nervous
system is also intimately linked with the immune system,
which controls the ability to resist infection and to recover
from illness and injury.

This incredible complex of systems—part electrical, part
chemical, part mechanical—must function harmoniously if
good health is to be maintained. In health, the body has a
seemingly infinite capacity, via its controlling systems, to adjust
and change to external pressures. This ability to adapt to the
external world while the body’s internal workings remain
constant is known as homeostasis. Many herbs work with
the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems to help the
body adapt more effectively to stresses and strains of all kinds:
physical, mental, emotional, and even spiritual. They are
effective because they work in tune with the body's processes.

Some herbs are adaptogenic, meaning that they have an
ability to help people to adapt, either by supporting the
nervous system and easing nervous and emotional tension,
or by working directly with the body’s own physiological
processes to maintain health. The prime example of an
adaptogenic herb is ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. I 18), which
is an effective remedy at times of great mental or physical
stress, but in certain cases can also be taken when a relaxing
effect is required, for example to relieve headaches, or to
ensure a good night's sleep.

Complex Natural Medicines

As can be seen, an herb is not a “magic bullet” with a single
action, but a complex natural medicine composed of many
active constituents that work on different body systems. By
combining scientific research into active constituents with
clinical observation and traditional knowledge of the whole
plant, we can develop a rounded picture of each herb's range
of medicinal uses.

Herbs & Body Systems

One of the most common ways of classifying medicinal plants is to identify their actions, for example whether they are
sedative, antiseptic, or diuretic, and the degree to which they affect different body systems. Herbs often have a pronounced
action on a particular body system, for example a plant that is strongly antiseptic in the digestive tract may be less so in the
respiratory tract. Examples of how herbs work on the body are given below.

Skin

Antiseptics, e.g., tea tree ( Melaleuca alternifolia, p. 112),
disinfect the skin. Emollients, e.g., marshmallow
(Althea officinalis, p. 165), reduce itchiness, redness,
and soreness. Astringents, e.g., witch hazel
(Hamamelis virginiana, p. 102), tighten the skin.
Depuratives, e.g., burdock (Arctium lappa, p. 65),
encourage removal of waste products. Healing and
vulnerary herbs, e.g., comfrey (Symphytum officinale,
p. 138) and calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73), aid
the healing of cuts, wounds, and abrasions.

Calendula

(Calendula officinalis)

Immune system

Immune modulators, e.g., echinacea (Echinacea
spp. p. 92) and pau d’arco (Tabebuia spp.,
p. 139), encourage the immune system to
ward off infection.

W

Echinacea

(Echinacea spp.)

Respiratory system

Antiseptics and antibiotics, e.g., garlic (Allium
sativum, p. 59), help the lungs resist infection.
Expectorants, e.g., elecampane (Inula helenium,
p. 107), stimulate the coughing up of mucus.
Demulcents, e.g., coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara,
p. 278), soothe irritated membranes.
Spasmolytics, e.g., visnaga (Ammi visnaga, p. 62),
relax bronchial muscles.

Garlic

(Allium sativum)

\

V:

c

Endocrine glands

Adaptogens, e.g., ginseng (Panax ginseng,
p. 118), help the body adjust to external pressures
and stress. Hormonally active herbs, e.g., chaste tree
(Vitex agnus-castus, p. 151), stimulate production of
sex and other hormones. Emmenagogues, e.g.,
black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79),
encourage or regulate menstruation.

Ginseng

(Panax ginseng)

Urinary system

Antiseptics, e.g., buchu (Barosma betulina, p. 71),
disinfect the urinary tubules. Astringents, e.g.,
horsetail (Equisetum arvense, p. 205), tighten and
protect the urinary tubules. Diuretics, e.g. cornsilk
(Zea mays, p. 154), stimulate the flow of urine.

r

V

Cornsilk

(Zea mays)

Musculoskeletal system

Analgesics, e.g., yellow jasmine (Gelsemium empervirens,
p. 21 6), relieve joint and nerve pain. Anti-
inf ammatories, e.g., white willow (Salix alba, p. 129),
reduce swelling and pain in joints. Antispasmodics, e.g.,
White Willow cinchona (Cinchona spp., p. 80), relax tense
(Salix alba) and cramped muscles.

Nervous system

Nervines, e.g., rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis, p. 128), support and strengthen
the nervous system. Relaxants, e.g., lemon
balm (A/le//ssa offcinalis, p. I 13), relax the
nervous system. Sedatives, e.g., mistletoe (Viscum
album, p. 283), reduce nervous activity. Stimulants,
e.g., kola nut (Cola acuminata, p. 192), increase
nervous activity. Tonics, e.g., oats (Avena sativa,
p. 175), improve nerve function and tone, and
help to restore the nervous system as a whole

Rosemary

(Rosmarinus officinalis)

Circulation & heart

Cardiotonics, e.g., dan shen (Salvia miltiorrhiza,
p. 130), vary in action. Some slow heartbeat
rate, while others increase it. Some improve
the regularity and strength of the heart’s
contractions. Circulatory stimulants, e.g., cayenne
(Capsicum frutescens, p. 74), improve the
circulation of blood to the extremities.
Diaphoretics, e.g., ju hua (Chrysanthemum x
morifolium, p. 78), encourage blood flow to
the surface of the body promote sweating, and
lower blood pressure. Spasmolytics, e.g., cramp
bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150), relax the muscles,
helping to lower blood pressure.

Cayenne

(Capsicum frutescens)

Digestive organs

Antiseptics, e.g., ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155), protect
against infection. Astringents, e.g., bistort (Polygonum
bistorta, p. 253), tighten up the inner lining of the intestines
and create a protective coating over them. Bitters, e.i
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium, p. 66)
stimulate secretion of digestive
juices by the stomach and
intestines. Carminatives, e.g.,
sweet flag (Acorus calamus,
p. 57), relieve gas and cramps.

Cholagogues, e.g, fringe tree
^ (Chionanthus virginicus,
p. 188), improve the flow of bile into
the intestines. Choleretics, e.g., artichoke (Cynara scolymus,
p. 199), stimulate secretion of bile by the liver. Demulcents,
e.g., psyllium (Plantago spp., p. 123), soothe the digestive
system and protect against acidity and irritation,

Hepatics, e.g., bupleurum (Bupleurum chinense,
p. 72), prevent liver damage. Laxatives,
e.g., senna (Cassia senna, p. 75),
stimulate bowel movements.

Stomachics, e.g., cardamom
(Eletteria cardamomum, p. 93),
protect and support
the stomach. ^

ill

Sweet Flag

(Acorus calamus)

L

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0 HOW MEDICINAL PLANTS WORK

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Active Constituents

The medicinal effects of certain plants are well known. German chamomile, for example, has been
taken to soothe digestive problems for thousands of years, and aloe vera was known to Cleopatra as
a healing skin remedy. It is only relatively recently, however, that active constituents responsible for the
medicinal actions of plants have been isolated and observed. Knowing a little about the chemicals
contained in plants helps you to understand how they work within the body.

14

Thyme

(Thymus vulgaris)

Phenols

Phenols are a very varied group
of plant constituents ranging from
salicylic acid, a molecule similar
to aspirin (acetylsalicyIic acid), to
complex sugar-containing phenolic
glycosides. Phenols are often anti¬
inflammatory and antiseptic, and
are thought to be produced by
plants to protect against infection
and feeding by insects. Phenolic
acids, such as rosmarinic acid,
are strongly antioxidant and anti¬
inflammatory, and can also have
antiviral properties. Wintergreen
(Gaultheria procumbens, p. 215)
and white willow ( Salix alba, p. 129)
both contain salicylates. Many mint
family members contain phenols—
for example, the strongly antiseptic
thymol, found in thyme ( Thymus
vulgaris, p. 143).

Found widely throughout
the plant world, flavonoids
are polyphenolic
compounds that act
as pigments, imparting
color, often yellow or
white, to flowers and i
fruits. They have a wide i
range of actions and many
medicinal uses. They are
antioxidant and especially
useful in maintaining healthy
circulation. Some flavonoids also
have anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and
liver-protective activity. Flavonoids such as hesperidin and rutin,
found in many plants, notably buckwheat ( Fagopyrum esculentum,
p. 210) and lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82), strengthen capillaries
and prevent leakage into surrounding tissues. Isoflavones,
found for example in red clover (Trifolium pratense,
p. 277), are estrogenic and valuable in treating
menopausal symptoms.

Lemon

(Citrus limon)

Black Catechu

(Acacia catechu)

Tannins

Tannins are produced to a greater or
lesser degree by all plants. The harsh,
astringent taste of tannin-laden bark cjfl
and leaves makes them unpalatable to V
insects and grazing animals. Tannins are

polyphenolic compounds that contract and astringe tissues of the body by
binding with and precipitating proteins—hence their use to “tan” leather.
They also help to stop bleeding and to check infection. Tannin-containing
herbs are used to tighten up over-relaxed tissues—as in varicose veins—
to dry up excessive watery secretions—as in diarrhea—and to protect
damaged tissue—such as skin problems resulting from eczema or a burn.
Oak bark (Quercus robur, p. 260) and black catechu (Acacia catechu, p. 158)
are both high in tannins.

Volatile Oils

Volatile oils—which are extracted
from plants to produce
essential oils—are some
of the most important
medicinally active plant
constituents, and are
also used widely in
perfumery. They are
complex mixtures often of
100 or more compounds,
mostly made up of
monoterpenes—molecules
containing 10 carbon atoms.

Essential oils have many uses.

Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia,
p. 112) is strongly antiseptic, while
sweet gale oil (Myrica gale, p. 238) is an
effective insect repellent. On distillation, some
essential oils contain compounds not found in
the volatile oil—chamazulene, found in German
chamomile (Chamomilla recutita, p. 77) essential
oil, is anti-inflammatory and antiallergenic.
Resins—sticky oily substances that seep from
plants, for example from the bark of Scots
pine (Pinus sylvestris, p. 249)—are often
linked with essential oils (oleoresins) and
gums (see Polysaccharides), though they
are nonvolatile.

German Chamomile

(Chamomilla recutita)

Flavonoids

Proanthocyanins

Closely related to tannins and flavonoids,
these polyphenolic compounds are
pigments that give flowers and
fruits a blue, purple, or red hue.

They are powerfully antioxidant
and free-radical scavengers. They
protect the circulation from damage
especially the circulation in the
heart, hands, feet, and eyes.

Blackberry ( Rubus fruticosus,
p. 264), red grapes ( Vitis
vinifero, p. 283), and
hawthorn ( Crataegus
oxycontha, p. 87) all contain
appreciable quantities of
these proanthocyanins.

Blackberry

(Rubus fruticosus)

Saponins

The main active
constituents in many
key medicinal plants,
saponins gained their
name because, like soap,
they make a lather when
placed in water. Saponins occur in two
different forms—steroidal and triterpenoid.

The chemical structure of steroidal saponins
is similar to that of many of the body’s hormones, for example
estrogen and cortisol, and many plants containing them have a
marked hormonal activity. Wild yam ( Dioscorea villosa, p. 9 I), from
which the contraceptive pill was first developed, contains steroidal
saponins. Triterpenoid saponins occur more commonly—for example
in licorice ( Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101) and cowslip root ( Primula veris,
p. 256)—but have less hormonal activity. They are often expectorant
and aid absorption of nutrients.

Coumarins

Coumarins of different kinds are found
in many plant species and have widely
divergent actions. The coumarins in melilot
(Me//7otus officinalis, p. 234) and horse
chestnut ( Aesculus hippocastanum, p. 58)
help to keep the blood thin, while
furanocoumarins such as bergapten,
found in celery ( Apium graveolens, p. 64),
stimulate skin tanning, and khellin, found
in visnaga ( Ammi visnaga, p. 62), is a
powerful smooth-muscle relaxant.

Celery

(Apium graveolens)

Cardiac Glycosides

Found in various medicinal plants, notably
in foxgloves (see common foxglove, Digitalis
purpurea, p. 202) and in lily of the valley
(Convallaria majalis, p. 194), cardiac glycosides
such as digitoxin, digoxin, and convallotoxin
have a strong, direct action on the heart,
supporting its strength and rate of
contraction when it is failing. Cardiac
glycosides are also significantly diuretic.
They help to stimulate urine production,
thus increasing the removal of fluid from
the tissues and circulatory system.

Common Foxglove

(Digitalis purpurea)

Anthraquinones

Anthraquinones are the main active
constituents in herbs such as senna
(Cassia senna, p. 75) and Chinese rhubarb
(Rheum palmatum, p. 126), both of which
are taken to relieve constipation.
Anthraquinones have an irritant laxative
effect on the large intestine, causing
contractions of the intestinal walls
and stimulating a bowel
movement approximately 10
hours after being taken. They
also make the stool more liquid,
easing bowel movements.

Chinese Rhubarb

(Rheum palmatum)

Cyanogenic glycosides

Though these glycosides are
based on cyanide, a very
potent poison, in small
doses they have a
helpful sedative and
relaxant effect

on the heart and

muscles. The bark
of wild cherry ( Prunus
serotina, p. 257) and the
leaves of elder ( Sambucus nigra,
p. 132) both contain cyanogenic
glycosides, which contribute to the plant’s
ability to suppress and soothe irritant dry
coughs. Many fruit kernels contain high
levels of cyanogenic glycosides, for example
those of apricot ( Prunus armeniaca, p. 257).

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ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

16

Slippery Elm

(Ulmus rubra)

Polysaccharides

Found in all plants, polysaccharides
are multiple units of sugar
molecules linked together. From
an herbal point of view, the most
important polysaccharides are the
“sticky” mucilages and gums, which
are commonly found in roots, bark,
leaves, and seeds. Both mucilage and
gum soak up large quantities of water,
producing a sticky, jelly-like mass that can be
used to soothe and protect irritated tissue, for
example, dry irritated skin and sore or inflamed mucous membranes
in the gut. Mucilaginous herbs, such as slippery elm ( Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
and linseed or flaxseed ( Linum usitatissimum, p. 109), are best prepared
by soaking (macerating) in plenty of cold water. Some polysaccharides
stimulate the immune system, for example acemannan, which is found
in the leaves of aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60).

Glucosilinates

Found exclusively in species of
the mustard and cabbage family,
glucosilinates have an irritant effect
on the skin, causing inflammation
and blistering. Applied as poultices
to painful or aching joints,
they increase blood flow to
the affected area, helping to
remove the buildup of waste
products (a contributory factor in
many joint problems). On eating,
glucosilinates are broken down and
produce a strong, pungent taste.
Radish (Raphanus sativus, p. 261)
and watercress (Nasturtium officinale ,
p. 239) are typical glucosilinate-
containing plants.

Radish

(Raphanus sativus)

Bitters

Bitters are a varied group of constituents
linked only by their pronounced bitter taste. \
The bitterness itself stimulates secretions \
by the salivary glands and digestive organs. ’
Such secretions can dramatically improve the
appetite and strengthen the overall function
of the digestive system. With the improved
digestion and absorption of nutrients that follow,
the body is nourished and strengthened. Many
herbs have bitter constituents, notably
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium, p. 66),
chiretta (Swertia chirata, p. 273), and hops
(Humulus lupulus, p. 104).

Alkaloids

A very mixed group, alkaloids mostly
contain a nitrogen-bearing molecule
(-NH 2 ) that makes them particularly
pharmacologically active. Some are
well-known drugs and have a
recognized medical use. Vincristine,
for example, derived from Madagascar
periwinkle (Vinca rosea, p. 282), is used
to treat some types of cancer.

Other alkaloids, such as
atropine, found in deadly
nightshade (Atropa belladonna,
p. 69), have a direct effect on the
body, reducing spasms, relieving pain,
and drying up bodily secretions.

Deadly Nightshade

(Atropa belladonna)

Vitamins

Though often overlooked, many
medicinal plants contain useful
levels of vitamins. Some are well
known for their vitamin content,
for example dog rose (Rosa
canina, p. 263) has high levels of
vitamin C, and carrot (Daucus
carota, p. 201) is rich in beta-
carotene (pro-vitamin A), but
many are less well recognized.
Watercress (Nasturtium
officinale, p. 239), for
example, contains
appreciable levels of
vitamins B,, B 2 , C, and E as well
as beta-carotene, while sea
buckthorn (Hippophae
rhamnoides, p. 220) can be
regarded as a vitamin and
mineral supplement in its
own right.

I Wormwood

I (Artemisia absinthium)

Minerals

Like vegetable foods, many medicinal
plants provide high levels of minerals.

Plants, especially organically grown
ones, draw minerals from the soil and
convert them into a form that is more
easily absorbed and used by the body.
Whether plants are eaten as a
vegetable, like cabbage (Brassica
oleracea, p. 180), or taken as a medicine,
like bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus,
p. 213), in many cases the mineral content
is a key factor in the plant’s therapeutic
activity within the body. Dandelion leaf
(Taraxacum officinale, p. 141) is a potent
diuretic, balanced by its high potassium
content, while the high silica content of horsetail
(Equisetum arvense, p. 205) supports the repair
of connective tissue, making it useful in arthritis.

Dandelion

(Taraxacum officinale)

Quality control

Making the most of herbal medicine means ensuring that herbs and herbal products
used are of good quality—properly grown, well dried, correctly processed, and within
their sell-by date. Using poor-quality herbal produce is all too often a waste of money
since there is the strong possibility that you will receive little benefit from it. When it
comes to herbal medicine, quality is everything.

Quality is vital for herbal medicine. Without a guarantee that
the correct herb of the right quality is being used, it is hard to
be confident that the medicine will prove effective. In fact, one
reason why the medical profession has generally preferred
conventional medicines to herbal ones is the difficulty of
guaranteeing quality in herbal remedies. Many herbal products
on the market are of high quality but some can be very poor
A 2006 U.S. study of black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79)
found that only 7 out of I I over-the-counter products tested
contained what was stated on the label. Four contained a
cheaper Chinese species instead. The adulteration of herbal
products, particularly in Chinese and Indian herbs sold in
the West is, regrettably, not unusual.

Herb quality may be affected not only by deliberate
adulteration, but by the use of wrongly identified or poor-quality
material. The herb may have been poorly harvested, dried, or
stored, or it may be old or decayed. It may even be that the
wrong herb was used. In each case, the lack of attention to
quality results in a product with reduced medicinal value—
or even none at all.

To try to ensure that only good-quality products are made,
manufacturers of genuine herbal medicines use strict quality-

control procedures. Usually this involves comparing the dried
herb material with listings in an herbal or national pharmacopeia
(a standard reference work that gives the characteristics one
would expect to find when analyzing a specific herb). Quality
control involves making routine checks to establish that the
herbal material is what it claims to be and that it meets a number
of minimum requirements. The material is inspected with the
naked eye, and assessed microscopically, to see if its botanical
profile matches the standard. Other checks are made to see
whether it contains appropriate levels of active constituents
and to ensure that the material is free from contamination.

More sensitive quality-control methods, however, recognize
that the quality of an herb does not depend simply on the
presence of one or two key active constituents. Increasingly
people in the world of herbal medicine are focusing on the
“fingerprint” of an herb—-the unique chemical profile that
represents the complex pattern of constituents found when
good-quality dried herb material is analyzed by sensitive
scientific machinery. By monitoring the sample and comparing
it with this unique fingerprint, it is possible to make a much
broader assessment of quality than when using only one or
two constituents as a standard.

Buying Herbal Medicines

What should you look for when buying herbal medicines?

It is usually most convenient to buy capsules, tablets,
essential oils, pessaries, and perhaps tinctures, and to
make up your own infusions, decoctions, and syrups
(see p. 29 I and p. 293).

• Buy from a reputable herb store, staffed by
people knowledgeable about herbal medicines.

• Only buy herbs online from established
herbal suppliers.

• Buy organic herbs and products where available.

Calendula

Buying Dried Herbs

Dried herbs are generally available from herbal suppliers. Buying
from shops is preferable to buying online because the herbs can be
examined before purchasing. However, it is possible some online
companies may supply fresher herbs due to higher turnover. To gain the
best medicinal effect, good-quality produce is essential. Shop around
and bear in mind the following points before buying:

• Herbs should not be stored in clear glass jars or in direct sunlight,
as this causes oxidation, which affects their efficacy.

• Good-quality aromatic herbs should have a distinct scent and taste.

• Check for signs of infestation due to poor drying techniques, or
adulteration. This can sometimes be recognized by the presence of
dried grass or other non-medicinal material in the jar.

• Herbs lose their color as they age. Look for bright material that has
been well dried and stored, and that is not too old. Calendula flowers
(Calendula officinalis, p. 73) that are a vivid yellow/orange color are likely
to make good medicine. If they have been sitting on a shelf for

18 months, they will probably look drab and pale.

Buying Herbal Products

When buying products such as capsules, tablets, essential oils,
pessaries, and tinctures, always check the label on the jar or packet.
If it does not do the following, do not buy it:

■ Name all constituents of the product

■ State the recommended daily dosage

■ State the weight of each capsule or tablet, or volume of bottle

■ List the weight of each constituent of a capsule, tablet, etc.

■ List the ratio of herb in the product (for example, 1:3, meaning
I part herb to 3 parts liquid).

17

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QUALITY CONTROL

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Early Origins to the 19th Century

In an age of medical specialization in which an expert in neurology will know little about
the latest developments in medicine for the ear, nose, and throat, it is difficult to imagine the
practices of an earlier time, when healing was holistic in nature and heavily reliant on magic,
mysticism, and age-old oral traditions.

From the earliest times, medicinal plants have been crucial in
sustaining the health and the well-being of mankind. Flaxseed
(.Linum usitatissimum, p. 109), for example, provided its
harvesters with a nutritious food oil, fuel, a cosmetic balm
for the skin, and fiber to make fabric. At the same time it
was used to treat conditions such as bronchitis, respiratory
congestion, boils, and a number of digestive problems. Given
the life-enhancing benefits that this and so many other plants
conferred, it is hardly surprising that most cultures believed
them to have magical as well as medicinal abilities. It is
reasonable to assume that for tens of thousands of years
herbs were probably used as much for their ritual magical
powers as for their medicinal qualities. A 60,000-year-old
burial site excavated in Iraq, for instance, was found to

18

Mistletoe, which the Druids called “golden bough,” had a central place in their
shamanistic religious and healing ceremonies. The Druids had a well-developed
knowledge of medicinal plants.

contain eight different medicinal plants, including ephedra
(Ephedra sinica, p. 95). The inclusion of the plants in the
tomb suggests they had supernatural significance as well
as medicinal value.

In some cultures, plants were considered to have souls.
Even Aristotle, the 4th-century bce Greek philosopher,
thought that plants had a “psyche,” albeit of a lesser order
than the human soul. In FHinduism, which dates back
to at least 1 500 bce, many plants are sacred to specific
divinities. For example, the bael tree (Aegle marmelos,
p. 161) is said to shelter Shiva, the god of health, beneath
its branches.

In medieval Europe, the Doctrine of Signatures stated
there was a connection between how a plant looked—
God’s “signature”—and how it might be used medicinally.
For example, the mottled leaves of lungwort ( Pulmonaria
officinalis, p. 259) were thought to resemble lung tissue,
and the plant is still used to treat ailments of the
respiratory tract.

Even in Western cultures, beliefs in plant spirits linger. Until
the first half of the 20th century, British farm workers would
not cut down elder trees (Sambucus nigra, p. 132) for fear of
arousing the anger of the Elder Mother, the spirit who lived
in and protected the tree.

In a similar vein, native peoples of the Andes in South
America believe that the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca,
p. 206) is protected by Mama Coca, a spirit who must be
respected and placated if the leaves are to be harvested
and used.

Shamanistic Medicine

In many traditional societies today, the world is believed to
be shaped by good and evil spirits. In these societies, illness
is thought to stem from malignant forces or possession by
evil spirits. If a member of the tribe falls ill, the shaman (the
“medicine” man or woman) is expected to intercede with
the spirit world to bring about a cure. Shamans often enter
the spiritual realm with the aid of hallucinogenic plants or
fungi, such as ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi, p. 176), taken
by Amazonian shamans, or fly agaric (Amanita muscaria),
taken by traditional healers of the Siberian steppes.

At the same time, the shaman provides medical treatment
for the physical needs of the patient—putting salves and
compresses on wounds, boiling up decoctions and barks
for internal treatment, stimulating sweating for fevers, and so

Shiva, the Hindu god who oversees health, is traditionally thought to live under the bael tree,
an important medicinal plant in India.

on. Such treatment is based on a wealth of acutely observed
plant lore and knowledge, handed down in an oral tradition
from generation to generation.

The Development of Medicinal Lore

It is generally recognized that our ancestors had a wide range
of medicinal plants at their disposal, and that they likewise
possessed a profound understanding of plants' healing powers.
In fact, up until the 20th century, every village and rural
community had a wealth of herbal folklore. Tried and tested
local plants were picked for a range of common health
problems and taken as teas, applied as lotions, or even mixed
with lard and rubbed in as an ointment.

But what were the origins of this herbal expertise? There
are no definitive answers. Clearly, acute observation coupled
with trial and error has played a predominant role. Human
societies have had many thousands of years to observe the
effects—both good and bad—of eating a particular root,
leaf, or berry. Watching the behavior of animals after they
have eaten or rubbed against certain plants has also added
to medicinal lore. If one watches sheep or cattle, they almost
unerringly steer a path past poisonous plants such as ragwort

(Senecio jacobaea ) or oleander ( Nerium oleander ). Over and
above such close observation, some people have speculated
that human beings, like grazing animals, have an instinct that
recognizes poisonous as opposed to medicinal plants.

Ancient Civilizations

As civilizations grew from 3000 bce
onward in Egypt, the Middle East,

India, and China, so the use of
herbs became more sophisticated,
and the first written accounts of
medicinal plants were made. The
Egyptian Ebers papyrus of c. 1500
bce is the earliest surviving
example. It lists dozens of
medicinal plants, their uses, and
related spells and incantations. The
herbs include myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85), castor oil
(Ricinus communis, p. 262), and garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59).

In India, the Vedas, epic poems written c. 1500 bce, also
contain rich material on the herbal lore of that time. The
Vedas were followed in about 400 bce by the Charaka Samhita,
written by the physician Charaka. This medical treatise
includes details of around 350 herbal medicines. Among
them are visnaga (Ammi visnaga, p. 62), an herb of Middle
Eastern origin that has recently proven effective in the
treatment of asthma, and gotu kola (Centella asiatica, p. 76),
which has long been used to treat leprosy. ____

Medicine Breaks from its
Mystical Origins

By about 500 bce in developed
cultures, medicine began to separate
from the magical and spiritual
world. Hippocrates (460-377 bce),
the Greek “father of medicine,”
considered illness to be a natural
rather than a supernatural
phenomenon, and he felt that
medicine should be given without
ritual ceremonies or magic.

In the earliest Chinese medical
text, the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of
Internal Medicine written in the I st
century bce, the emphasis on rational
medicine is equally clear: “In treating
illness, it is necessary to examine
the entire context, scrutinize the

The bump in the right cheek of this
Peruvian figurine may represent
coca, taken in that country to
increase endurance.

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EARLY ORIGINS TO THE 19TH CENTURY

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

symptoms, observe the emotions and attitudes. If one
insists on the presence of ghosts and spirits one cannot
speak of therapeutics.”

Foundation of Major Herbal Traditions
300 bce-600 CE

Trade between Europe, the Middle East, India, and Asia was
already well under way by the 2nd century bce, and trade
routes became established for many medicinal and culinary
herbs. Cloves ( Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97), for example,
which are native to the Philippines and the Molucca Islands
near New Guinea, were imported into China in the 3rd
century bce, and first arrived in Egypt around 176 ce. As the
centuries passed, the popularity of cloves grew, and by the
8th century ce, their strong aromatic flavor and powerfully
antiseptic and analgesic properties were familiar throughout
most of Europe.

As trade and interest in
herbal medicines and spices
flourished, various writers
tried to make systematic
records of plants with a
known medicinal action and
record their properties.

In China, the Divine
Husbandman's Classic
(Shen’nong Bencaojing),
written in the I st century ce,
has 364 entries, of which 252
are herbal medicines, including
bupleurum (8 upleurum
chinense, p. 72), coltsfoot
(Tussilago farfara,
p. 278), and gan cao (Glycyrrhiza uralensis). This Daoisttext
laid the foundations for the continuous development
and refinement of Chinese herbal medicine up to the
present day.

In Europe, a I st-century ce Greek physician named
Dioscorides wrote the first European herbal, De Materia
Medica. His intention was to produce an accurate and
authoritative work on herbal medicines, and in this he was
dramatically successful. Among the many plants mentioned
are juniper (Juniperus communis, p. 224), elm (Ulmus carpinifolia),
peony (Paeonia officinalis, p. 243), and burdock ( Arctium lappa,
p. 65). The text, listing about 600 herbs in all, was to have
an astonishing influence on Western medicine, being the
principal reference used in Europe until the 17th century.

It was translated into languages as varied as Anglo-Saxon,
Persian, and Hebrew. In 5 12 ce, De Materia Medica became
the first herbal to feature pictures of the plants discussed.
Made for Juliana Arnicia, the daughter of the Roman emperor
Flavius Avicius Olybrius, it contained nearly 400 full-page
color illustrations.

Frontispiece decoration for the first illustrated herbal, Dioscorides’ De Materia
Medica produced in Constantinople in 512 ce.

Galen (131 -200 ce), physician to the Roman emperor
Marcus Aurelius, had an equally profound influence on the
development of herbal medicine. Galen drew inspiration
from Hippocrates and based his theories on the ‘‘theory
of the four humors” (see p. 32). His ideas shaped and, some
would say, distorted medical practice for the next 1,400 years.

In India and in China, elaborate medical systems somewhat
resembling the theory of the four humors developed (see
pp. 36-38 and pp. 40-41 respectively) that have endured to
the present day.

Though European, Indian, and Chinese systems differ
widely, they all consider that imbalance within the constituent
elements of the body is the cause of illness, and that the aim
of the healer is to restore balance, often with the aid of
herbal remedies.

Folk Healing in the Middle Ages

The theories of Galenic, Ayurvedic (Indian), and Chinese
traditional medicine, however, would have meant practically
nothing to most of the worlds population. As is still the case
today for some indigenous peoples who have little access
to conventional medicines, in the past most villages and
communities relied on the services of local “wise” men and
women for medical treatment. These healers were almost
certainly ignorant of the conventions of scholastic medicine,
yet through apprenticeship and practice in treating illness,
attending childbirth, and making use of locally growing herbs
as a natural pharmacy, they developed a high level of practical
medical knowledge.

We tend to underestimate the medical skills of apparently
undeveloped communities—particularly during the so-called
Dark Ages in medieval Europe—but it is evident that many
people had a surprisingly sophisticated understanding of plant
medicine. For example, recent excavations at an I Ith-century
monastic hospital in Scotland revealed that the monks were
using exotic herbs such as opium poppy ( Papaver somniferum,
p. 244) and marijuana (Cannabis sativa, p. 182) as painkillers and
anesthetics. Likewise, the herbalists in Myddfai, a village in
South Wales, obviously knew of Hippocrates' writings in the
6th century ce and used a wide variety of medicinal plants.
The texts that have been handed down from that herbal
tradition are filled with an engaging blend of superstition and
wisdom. Two prescriptions from a 13th-century manuscript
illustrate the point. The first recipe could have been written by
a modern, scientifically trained herbalist; the second, one must
presume, is pure fancy, and would not choose to try it out!

To Strengthen the Sight

Take Eyebright and Red Fennel, a handful of each, and half a handful
of Rue, distil, and wash your eye daily therewith.

To Destroy a Worm in the Tooth
Take the root of a cat’s ear, bruise, and apply to the patient's tooth
for three nights, and it will kill the worm.

Roman period were preserved and elaborated. The spread
of Islamic culture along North Africa and into present-day
Italy, Spain, and Portugal led to the founding of renowned
medical schools, notably at Cordoba in Spain. The Arabs
were expert pharmacists, blending and mixing herbs to
improve their medicinal effect and their taste. Their
contacts with both Indian and Chinese medical traditions
meant that they had a remarkable range of medical and
herbal knowledge to draw on and develop. Avicenna
(980-1037 ce), author of Canon of Medicine, was the
most famous physician of the day, but perhaps the most
unusual herbal connection was made a century before
his time by Ibn Cordoba, an intrepid Arab seafarer, who
brought ginseng root (Panax ginseng, p. 118) from China
to Europe. This valuable tonic herb was to be regularly
imported into Europe from the I 6th century onward.

Further east, in India, the 7th century saw a golden age
of medicine. Thousands of students studied Ayurveda at
university, especially at Nalanda. There, scholars recorded
the medical achievements of the time, with advances such
as the development of hospitals, maternity homes, and the
planting of medicinal herb gardens.

Central & South American Cures

On the other side of the world, the ancient civilizations
of Central and South America—Maya, Aztec, and Inca—
all had herbal traditions with a profound understanding
of local medicinal plants. One account tells of Incas taking
local herbalists from what is now Bolivia back to their
capital Cuzco in Peru because of the herbalists' great
capabilities, which reputedly included growing penicillin
on green banana skins.

At the same time, medicine and religion were still closely
interwoven in these cultures, possibly even more so than
in Europe. One gruesome account tells of Aztec sufferers
of skin diseases who sought to appease the god Xipe
Totec by wearing the flayed skins of sacrificial victims.
Fortunately, a supernatural appeal to the gods
was not the sole means to relieve this and
other afflictions. Many herbs were available
as alternative treatments, including
sarsaparilla (Smilax spp., p. 270), atonic
and cleansing herb that was used
in treatments for a variety of skin
complaints including eczema
and psoriasis.

Galen and Hippocrates, two of the

preeminent physicians of the classical
era, debate in this imaginary scene
depicted in a fresco.

Islamic & Indian Medicine 500-1500 CE

Folk medicine was largely unaffected by sweeping forces of
history, but Western scholastic medicine suffered greatly with
the decline of the Roman Empire.

It was thanks to the flowering of Arabic culture in
500-1300 ce that the gains of the classical Greek and

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EARLY ORIGINS TO THE 19TH CENTURY

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Marco Polo’s voyage to China in the 14th century opened the door for a flourishing
reciprocal trade in goods, including medicinal herbs, between East and West. Eventually,
exotic herbs like ginger, cinnamon, and cloves became widely used in European medicine
and cooking.

22

Rebirth of European Scholarship 1000-1400 CE

As European scholars slowly started to absorb the lessons
of Arabic medical learning in the early Middle Ages, classical
Greek, Roman, and Egyptian texts preserved in the libraries
of Constantinople (later Istanbul) filtered back to Europe,
and hospitals, medical schools, and universities were founded.
Perhaps the most interesting among them was the medical
school at Salerno on the west coast of Italy. It not only
allowed students from all faiths—Christian, Muslim, and
Jewish—to study medicine, but it also allowed women to
train as physicians. Trotula, a woman who wrote a book on
obstetrics, practiced and taught there in the 1 2th century ce.
Herbs were, of course, central to the healing process. An
adage from the Salerno school on sage ( Salvia officinalis,
p. 131) went as follows: Salvia salvatrix, natura conciliatrix
(sage, the savior; nature, the conciliator).

By the 12th century, trade with Asia and Africa was
expanding and new herbs and spices were being regularly
imported into Europe. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1 179),
the famous German mystic and herbal authority, considered
galangal ( Alpinia ofpdnarum, p. 61)—used in Asia as a warming
and nourishing spice for the digestive system—to be the
“spice of life,” given by God to provide health and to protect
against illness.

Asian Unification

Marco Polo's travels to China in the 14th century coincided
with the unification of the whole of Asia from the Yellow
Sea in China to the Black Sea in southeastern Europe by
Genghis Khan and his grandson Kublai Khan, whose capital
was in China, not far from Beijing. Neither the Chinese nor
Ayurvedic medical traditions were directly threatened by this
conquest. The Mongol rulers were strict in banning the use
of certain toxic plants such as aconite ( Aconitum napellus,
p. 160), but their decree may have held an element of self¬

preservation, given aconite’s alternative use as an arrow
poison—one that could have been used against the ruling
powers. Moreover, the Mongol unification may have
encouraged greater communication between the two
medical disciplines.

In other parts of Asia, such as Vietnam and Japan, Chinese
culture and medicine exerted the primary influence.

While kampoh —-the traditional herbal medicine of Japan—
is distinctive to that country, its roots stem from
Chinese practices.

Trade between Continents 1400-1700

Trade routes had slowly expanded during the Middle Ages,
bringing exotic new herbs in their wake. From the 15th
century onward, an explosion in trade led to a cornucopia
of new herbs becoming readily available in Europe. They
included plants such as ginger ( Zingiber officinale, p. 155),
cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum, p. 93), nutmeg ( Myristica
fragrans, p. I 15), turmeric ( Curcuma longa, p. 90), cinnamon
(■Cinnamomum spp., p. 81), and senna ( Cassia senna, p. 75).

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Manuscript page from an Anglo-Saxon herbal of about 1050 ce, illustrating the aerial parts
and root system of a medicinal plant.

The trade in herbs was not entirely
one way. The European herb sage,
for example, came into use in China,
where it was considered to be a
valuable yin tonic.

The arrival of Columbus’ ships in
the Caribbean in 1492 was followed
by the rapid conquest and
colonization of central and
south America by the Spanish
and Portuguese. Along with
their booty of plundered
gold, the conquistadores
returned to the Old World
with previously unheard-of
medicinal plants. Many
of these herbs from the
Americas had highly potent
medicinal actions, and they
soon became available in the apothecaries of the major
European cities. Plants such as lignum vitae (Guaiacum
officinale, p. 218) and cinchona (Cinchona spp., p. 80) with
strong medicinal actions were used with greater and lesser
degrees of success as treatments for fever, malaria, syphilis,
smallpox, and other serious illnesses.

For most rural communities, however, the only foreign
plants that were used medicinally were those that could also
be grown locally as foods. Garlic offers one of the earliest and
clearest examples. Originating in central Asia, overtime it
was cultivated farther and farther west and was grown in
Egypt around 4500 bce. In Homer’s 8th-century bce epic
poem The Odyssey, the hero is saved from being changed
into a pig thanks to garlic. The herb was introduced into
Britain after the Roman conquest in the I st century ce, and
by the time it reached the island its remarkable medicinal
powers were well understood. In later centuries, potatoes
(Solanum tuberosum, p. 271) and corn (Zea mays, p. 154),
both native to South America, would become common
foods. These plants have clear medicinal as well as
nutritional benefits. Potato juice is a valuable remedy for the
treatment of arthritis, while cornsilk makes an effective
decoction for urinary problems such as cystitis.

Health & Hygiene 1400-1700

Between the 12th and 18th centuries, the influx of exotic
medicinal plants added to an already large number of useful
European herbs. Conceivably, an overall improvement of
health in Europe might have resulted. After all, not only
were new medicinal plants available, but Europeans had the
opportunity to observe the different medical practices of
people in South America, China, Japan, and especially in India,
where trade was well established. But, in fact, the reverse was
the case. People living in Europe during this period probably

\

Garlic is native to Asia but was readily
adopted for its medicinal and culinary
qualities in the West.

experienced some of the most unhealthy conditions the
world has ever seen. In contrast, Native Americans before
the arrival of Columbus lived longer, healthier lives than their
counterparts in Europe. This fact is unsurprising given the cities
of medieval Europe, with their open sewers, overcrowding,
and ignorance of simple hygiene.

Conditions such as these laid fertile ground for the spread
of plague-infested rats from the ports of the Mediterranean
throughout Western Europe. From the mid-14th century
onward, plague killed millions, in some cases close to 50
percent of the population. No medical treatment—herbal
or mineral—was able to alter its fatal course. Epidemics
continued to decimate the cities of Europe and Asia well into
the 18th century. An outbreak in India in 1994 reawakened the
terror inspired simply at the mention of the word “plague.”

Syphilis was another disease spread by seafarers. It was
reputedly brought back from the Caribbean to Naples by
Columbus’ crew in the 1490s, spreading quickly throughout
Europe and to the rest of the world, reaching China in 1550.

European doctors had little success in combating diseases
as devastating as plague. The medicine they practiced was
based on the blind acceptance of Galen’s humoral principles.
Perhaps if, as in Chinese and Indian medicine, European
medicine had continued to evolve, revising ancient medical
texts and reinterpreting them in the light of new discoveries,
it would have had greater success. As it was, European
physicians were at least as likely to kill their patients

with bloodletting and toxic minerals
misbegotten attempts to balance
the humors as they were to cure.

Indeed, the increasingly
fashionable use of
mineral cures such
as mercury led to the
growth of chemical
formulations, culminating
in scientific medicine’s
ultimate break away from
herbal practices.

I 7th-century doctor wearing a
costume designed to protect against
contamination by the plague.

The Influence
of Paracelsus

One of the key European figures
of the 16th century was Paracelsus
(1493-1541), a larger-than-life
character who rejected the tired
repetition of Galen's theories in
favor of detailed observation in
medicine. “I have not borrowed
from Hippocrates, Galen, or
anyone else,” he wrote, “having
acquired my knowledge from
the best teacher, that is, by

23

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

The iconoclastic Paracelsus, an alchemist and chemist, was one of the greatest scientists
of the 16 th century, and advocated the use of minerals in healing, but only in tightly
controlled dosages.

experience and hard work.” And again, ‘‘What a doctor
needs is not eloquence or knowledge of language and of
books, but profound knowledge of nature and her works.”
He also paid great attention to the exact dosage, saying that
‘‘it depends only on the dose whether a poison is a poison
or not.”

As a result, Paracelsus was an influential force in the future
development of chemistry, conventional medicine, herbal
medicine, and homeopathy. Though he is known as the
‘‘father of chemistry,” he also explored alchemy, which
concerned itself with the transmutation of base materials to
gold, and the search for immortal life. Paracelsus also revived
interest in the Doctrine of Signatures—-the ancient theory
that held that a plant’s appearance indicated the ailments
it would treat—and affirmed the value of locally grown
medicinal herbs over expensive imported specimens.

24

Culpeper & Printed Herbals

Paracelsus’ advocacy of local herbs was later fiercely espoused
by Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654). The frontispiece to
his The English Physitian contains the memorable words:
‘‘Containing a Compleat Method of Physick, whereby a Man

may preserve his Body in Health, or Cure himself, being
Sick, for three pence Charge, with such things only as grow
in England, they being most fit for English Bodies.”

Wounded during the English Civil War fighting for the
Commonwealth, Culpeper championed the needs of the
ordinary people who could afford neither the services of a
doctor nor the expensive imported herbs and formulations
that doctors generally prescribed. Drawing to some degree
on Dioscorides, Arabian physicians, and Paracelsus, Culpeper
developed a medical system that blended astrology and
sound personal experience of the therapeutic uses of local
plants. His herbal became an instant ‘‘bestseller” and appeared
in many subsequent editions. The first herbal published in
North America, in 1700, was an edition of his herbal.

While the popularity of The English Physitian was notable,
other herbals also found a place in households. The
development of the printing press in the 15th century brought
herbal medicine into homes on a wide scale. Texts such as
Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica were printed for the first
time, and throughout Europe herbals were published and ran
through many editions.

Deadly Cures 1700-1900

By the end of the 16th century, Paracelsus had become the
figurehead of the new chemical medicine. However, where
he had insisted upon caution in the use of metallic poisons—
mercury, antimony, and arsenic—-the new medical thinkers
were not so inhibited. Larger and larger doses of the purgative
known as calomel (mercurous chloride, Hg 2 CI 2 ) were given
to those suffering from syphilis and many other diseases. The
treatment was very often worse than the illness, with some
patients dying and many more suffering from the long-term
consequences of mercury poisoning.

Hippocrates' saying ‘‘Desperate cases need the most
desperate remedies” was taken very literally, as is evident in
the incredible excess of purging and bleeding that developed
over the next three centuries in Europe and North America.
These practices reached a peak in the ‘‘heroic” medicine of
the early 19th century. Its leading proponent, Dr. Benjamin
Rush (1745-1813), maintained that only bloodletting and
calomel were required in medical practice. His position was
obviously extreme, but it is clear that in this new climate herbal
medicines were becoming increasingly irrelevant.

The New Rationalism

Along with the new emphasis on chemical cures, modern
medicine came to look askance at the notion of the ‘‘vital
force.” Up until the end of the 16th century, nearly all medical
traditions had been based on the concept of working with
nature, with the body’s healing capacities, which could be
supported and strengthened with appropriate medicinal
herbs. In traditional Chinese medicine, qi is the primal energy
that maintains life and health. In Ayurveda, it is prana, and

The symbol for “om ”—

life force—is used by
followers of the Indian
practice of Ayurveda
as a focus for meditation.

in the Western
tradition, Hippocrates
writes about “vis
medicatrix naturae’’
or the healing power of
nature, while modern Western
medical herbalists and homeopaths
use the term “vital force.”

The importance of the vital force
was diminished in the West by the
philosophy of Rene Descartes (1596-1650). This French
mathematician divided the world into body and mind, nature
and ideas. His philosophy ordained that the intangible vital
force that maintains life and governs good health was the
province of religion rather than of the newly self-aware
“science” of medicine. To the new medical establishment,
inching its way forward toward scientifically sound medical
practices, “supernatural” concepts such as the vital force
were a reminder of the ignorance and superstition that were
part and parcel of older healing practices.

Even before Descartes’ theories, the rational approach
to scientific and medical exploration was beginning to reap
rewards. Slowly, medical understanding of bodily functions
was gaining ground. William Harvey (1578-1 657) made a
detailed study of the heart and circulation, proving for the
first time that, contrary to Galenic thought, the heart
pumped blood around the body. Published in 1628,
his study is a classic example of the revolution in
medical science.

Since Harveys time, science has had astounding
success in revealing how the body works on a
biochemical level and in distinguishing different
disease processes. However, by comparison it has
been altogether less successful in developing
effective medical treatments for the relief and
cure of diseases.

The Gap in the Scientific Approach

In hindsight, it seems as if the new science
of medicine could only be born in separation
from the traditional arts of healing, with which it
had always been intertwined. As a result, even though
traditional medicine has generally lacked scientific explanation,
it has frequently been far ahead of medical science in the
way it has been applied therapeutically. In American Indian
Medicine (University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), Virgil Vogel

provides a good example of “ignorant” folk medicine
outstripping scientific understanding in therapeutic application:

“During the bitter cold winter of 1535-6, the three ships
of Jacques Cartier were frozen fast in the fathom-deep ice of
the St Lawrence River near the site of Montreal. Isolated by
four feet of snow, the company of I 10 men subsisted on
the fare stored in the holds of their ships. Soon scurvy was
so rampant among them that by mid-March, 25 men had
died and the others, ‘only three or foure excepted,’ were
so ill that hope for their recovery was abandoned. As the
crisis deepened Cartier had the good fortune to encounter
once again the local Indian chief, Domagaia, who had cured
himself of the same disease with ‘the juice and sappe of a
certain tree’. The Indian women gathered branches of the
magical tree, ‘boiling the bark and leaves for a decoction,
and placing the dregs upon the legs’ All those so treated
rapidly recovered their health, and the Frenchmen
marvelled at the curative skill of the natives.”

Naturally, the Native Americans had not heard of vitamin C
deficiency, which causes scurvy, nor would they have been able
to explain in rational terms why the treatment worked. Indeed,
it was not until 1753 that James Lind (1716-1794), a British
naval surgeon, inspired partly by Cartier's account, published
A Treatise of the Scurvy, which showed conclusively that the
disease could be prevented by eating fresh greens, vegetables,
and fruit, and was caused by their lack in the diet. James Lind’s
work is a marvellous example of what can be achieved by
combining a systematic and scientific approach with traditional
herbal knowledge.

Mask of a northwestern Native American shaman. The efficacy of techniques
used by native healers often surpassed that of conventional medical practices
of the time.

25

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

26

Isolating Chemicals

The discovery of the medicinal value of foxglove (Digitalis
purpurea, p. 202) is another case where traditional herbal
knowledge led to a major advance in medicine. Dr. William
Withering (1741 -1799), a conventionally trained
, doctor with a long interest in medicinal plants,

started to investigate foxglove after encountering
£ a family recipe for curing dropsy (water

retention). He found that in some regions of
England, foxglove was traditionally used to
treat this condition, which is often one of
the indications of a failing heart. In 1785,
he published Account of the Foxglove,
documenting dozens of carefully
recorded case histories, and showing
how foxgloves powerful (and
potentially dangerous) active
constituents, now known as cardiac
glycosides, made it a valuable plant
medicine for dropsy. Cardiac
glycosides remain in common
use to the present day. Yet
despite this clearcut example
of the possibilities inherent
in a marriage of herbal
medicine and scientific
method, conventional
medicine was to take
another path in the
19th century.

Laboratory versus
Nature

From the early 19th
century, the chemical
laboratory began to
regularly supplant Mother
Nature as the source

of medicines. In I 803,
narcotic alkaloids were
isolated from the opium
poppy ( Papaver somniferum,
p. 244). A year later, inulin was
extracted from elecampane
(Inula helenium, p. 107). In 1838,
salicylic acid, a chemical forerunner
of aspirin, was isolated from white
willow bark (Sa/ix alba, p. 129), and
was first synthesized in the laboratory
in 1860. From this point on, herbal

In the 18th century, the physician William Withering
documented foxglove's ability to restore a failing heart.

Opium poppy, native to Asia, yields a resin that has long been smoked for its narcotic
effect. The main active constituent, morphine, was first isolated in the laboratory in
1803 and is used to relieve pain.

medicine and biomedicine were to take separate paths.
Aspirin, an entirely new chemical formulation, was
first developed in Germany in I 899. But this was still an
early step. For the time being, the influence of the
universities, medical schools, and laboratories of Europe
would remain limited, and herbal medicine would prevail
as the predominant form of treatment for most people
around the world.

New Frontiers, New Herbal Medicines

Wherever Europeans settled during the great migrations of
the 18th and 19th centuries—North America, South America,
southern Africa, or Australia—much of the European
medicine familiar from home was either unavailable or
prohibitively expensive. Settlers came to learn that native
peoples were a wellspring of information about the
medicinal virtues of indigenous plants. For example,

European settlers in southern Africa learned about the
diuretic properties of buchu (Barosma betulina, p. 71) from
native peoples; and Australian settlers came to understand
the remarkable antiseptic properties of tea tree (Melaleuca
alternifolia, p. 112) from observing the medicinal practices of
the Aborigines. Mexican herbal medicine as it exists today is
a blend of Aztec, Mayan, and Spanish herbs and practices.

In North America, native herbalists were particularly
adept at healing external wounds and bites—being superior
in many respects to their European counterparts in this area
of medicine. This is not surprising, given the range of highly

effective medicinal plants Native Americans had
discovered—including well-known herbs such as echinacea
(i Echinacea spp., p. 92), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis,
p. 105), and lobelia (Lobelia inflata, p. I 10).

European settlers learned much from observing native
practices. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries,
as pioneers moved west across the frontier territory, new
plants were constantly being added to the official record
of healing herbs. In addition to the three species mentioned
above, about 170 native plants were listed in The Pharmacopeia
of the United States.

Samuel Thomson & his Followers

Lobelia was one of the key herbs, along with cayenne
(Capsicum frutescens, p. 74), advocated by Samuel Thomson
(1769-1843), an unorthodox herbal practitioner who believed
that all illness resulted from cold. His simple approach was
entirely at odds with the conventional practices of his time
(see North America, p. 50). Thomson’s methods were often
very effective and were well suited to the needs of people
living in frontier territory. His system of medicine—in many
ways an early form of naturopathy, in which ill health is
treated with naturally grown food, sunlight, fresh air, and
natural medicines—became extraordinarily popular, with
millions of people across North America following his

methods. Thomson’s success waned as other
more sophisticated herbal approaches were
developed—those of the Eclectics and
Physiomedicalists, for example—in the
fertile medical world of 19th-century
America, which also saw the birth
of osteopathy (a system of healing
based upon the manipulation
of bones) and chiropractic
(a similar system primarily
involving manipulation of
the spine).

Western Influences on
Asian Medicine

Across the world in
China, Thomson’s
practices might have
been looked on with
a measure of surprise,
but they would have
been familiar. In Chinese
medicine, there has
always been a debate
as to what degree
illness arises from
cold, and to what
degree it arises from heat.

Ginseng has been used
as a tonic remedy in
Chinese medicine for
at least 5,000 years.

The Shanghanlun (On Cold-Induced Maladies), written in the 2nd
century ce, and revised and reinterpreted in commentaries
over the last 1,800 years, recommends the herb cinnamon
(Cinnamomum spp., p. 81) as a principal remedy when the
patient “shivers with fever, breathes heavily, and feels
nauseous.’’ In the 14th century, Wang Lu distinguished
between cold-induced illness and febrile illness, and treated
them in different ways, and this distinction was elaborated in
greater and greater detail by different Chinese herbalists right
up to the 19th century.

During the early 19th century, the influence of Western
biomedicine was beginning to affect traditional practices in both
China and India. This was certainly beneficial in many respects.
The judicious incorporation of scientific principles and methods
into traditional herbal healing offers the possibility of greatly
refining the effectiveness of treatment.

But in India under British rule, Western medicine eventually
became the only alternative. Ayurveda was seen as inferior to
biomedicine (see India & the Middle East, p. 39). Western
practice was introduced not as a complement to traditional
medicine, but rather as a means to supplant it. According to
one authority, “before I 835 Western physicians and their
Indian counterparts exchanged knowledge; thereafter only
Western medicine was recognised as legitimate and the
Eastern systems were actively discouraged” (Robert
Svoboda, Ayurveda, Life, Health and Longevity, 1992).

In China, the influx of Western ideas was less traumatic.
Increasing numbers of Chinese medical students studied
Western medicine, but this did not stop the continuing
development of traditional herbal practice. By and large,
each tradition was recognized as having both advantages
and disadvantages.

Herbalism Outlawed 1850-1900

In Europe, conventional medicine was seeking to establish
a monopoly for its own type of practice. In 1858, the British
Parliament was asked to impose legislation banning the
practice of medicine by anyone who had not been trained in
a conventional medical school. Fortunately, this proposal was
rejected, but in countries such as France, Spain, and Italy, and
in some states of the U.S., it became illegal to practice herbal
medicine without an orthodox qualification. Herbalists were
forced to risk fines or imprisonment simply for providing
herbal medicine to patients who had sought their help.

In Britain, concerns such as these, combined with a desire
to establish Western herbal medicine as an alternative to
conventional practices, particularly in the industrial cities
of the North of England, led to the formation in 1864 of the
National Institute of Medical Herbalists, the first professional
body of herbal practitioners in the world. Its history is an
example of how tenacious herbal practitioners have had
to be simply to retain their right to give safe, gentle, and
effective herbal medicines to their patients.

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EARLY ORIGINS TO THE 19TH CENTURY

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

20th Century Onward

For most of us, modern medicine is exemplified by drugs such as antibiotics and highly technical
methods of diagnosis and treatment. However, many might be surprised to discover that,
for much of the last century, herbal medicines have been the primary form of treatment,
even in Western countries.

Even as late as the 1930s, around 90 percent of medicines
prescribed by doctors or sold over the counter were herbal
in origin. It is only during the last 70 years that laboratory-
produced medicines have become the norm. During the
First World War (1914-1918), for example, garlic (Allium
sativum, p. 59) and sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.) were
used by the ton in the battle trenches to dress wounds and
to treat infections. Garlic is an excellent natural antibiotic,
and was the most effective antiseptic available at the time,

and sphagnum moss, gathered
from the moorlands, makes
a natural aseptic dressing.

Science & Medicine

The development of new
medicines in the laboratory—
either extracted from medicinal
plants or synthesized—stretches
back to the early 19th century,
when chemists first isolated
constituents such as morphine,
from opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum, p. 244), and cocaine,
from coca (Erythroxylum coca, p. 206). From that time onward,
scientists made tremendous progress in understanding how
isolated chemicals affect the body, as well as how the body
works in health and disease. From the 1860s, scientists—most
notably Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)—began to identify the
microorganisms that were ultimately responsible for causing
infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis and malaria.

Naturally enough, the first aim of those engaged in medical
research was to seek out medicines that would act as “magic
bullets,” directly attacking the microorganisms concerned and
ridding the body of the threat. This eventually led to the
discovery, or, more accurately, the rediscovery of penicillin
by a number of medical researchers, most notably Alexander
Fleming (1881 -1955) in 1929. However, while 20th-century
scientists were the first to scientifically evaluate antibiotics as
medicines, they were not the first to employ them in healing.
Antibiotic molds had been grown and used to combat
infection in ancient Egypt, 14th-century Peru, and in recent
European folk medicine.

In the decades following the Second World War (1939-
1945), when antibiotics first came into use, it seemed as
though a new era had dawned in which infection could

Louis Pasteur was a pioneer in the
identification of bacteria.

be conquered, and life-threatening diseases such as syphilis,
pneumonia, and tuberculosis would cease to be major causes
of death in the developed world. Modern medicine also
provided other highly effective drugs such as steroid anti¬
inflammatories, and it seemed as if it was simply a question
of time until cures for most illnesses were found.

Ascendancy of Biomedicine

As Americans and Europeans became accustomed to
medication that led to an almost instant short-term
improvement in symptoms (if not in underlying health), herbal
medicines came to be seen by the public as outmoded and
ineffective. Increasingly, the practice of herbal medicine was
outlawed in North America and most of Europe, while the
wealthy in developing countries abandoned herbal medicine
in favor of the new treatments available.

This was in no small part due to the medical profession
itself, which saw herbal medicine as a throwback to the
superstitions of the past. From the late 19th century
onward, the aim of organizations such as the American
Medical Association and the British Medical Association had
been to monopolize conventional medical practice. Herbal
medicine thus neared extinction in many countries, especially
in the U.S. and Britain. In Britain, for example, from 1941 until
1968 it was illegal to practice herbal medicine without
medical qualifications.

The Tide Turns

Although there were spectacular
successes with modern
chemical medicines,
there were also horrific
disasters, most notably
the thalidomide
tragedy in 1962 in
Britain and Germany,
when 3,000 deformed
babies were born to
mothers who had taken
the drug for morning
sickness during pregnancy.

This event marked a
turning point in the
public’s opinion of
chemical medicines.

An electron micrograph of the parasite
Plasmodium. Transmitted to man by infected
mosquitoes, it causes the disease malaria.

“Slash-and-burn” farming in the rainforest of Brazil results in the eradication of native
medicinal plants. Efforts are now under way to provide local farmers with alternative
means of profiting from the land.

People began to realize that a serious cost could accompany
the benefits of treatment with modern pharmaceutical
drugs. This, and the factors described below, have brought
about a sea change in public perceptions of the value of
herbal medicine.

The Chinese Example

Herbal medicine experienced a major gain in fortune in
1949 in China, when Mao Zedong and the Communist
Red Army gained control of the country.

Traditional Western medicine by that time was well
established in China, but most of the population had little
hope of access to modern hospitals, let alone to new drugs.
Out of necessity, traditional Chinese medicine—essentially
herbal medicine and acupuncture—once more began to
be used alongside Western conventional medicine. The
authorities aimed to provide the best of both worlds. Five
teaching hospitals for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)
were established, where it was taught on a scientific basis.

In addition, great efforts were made to improve the quality
of plant medicines.

Contrary to the trend in conventional Western medicine
that makes the patient ever more dependent upon the
doctor and high-tech machinery, TCM, like other forms
of complementary medicine, stresses the patient’s personal
responsibility for his or her own cure, encouraging a holistic
approach to treatment.

In the 1960s, China also established a system of “barefoot
doctors.” After a period of basic medical instruction that
blended herbal medicine, acupuncture, and Western practices,
these practitioners were sent out to provide health care
for the millions of rural Chinese too remote from cities
to benefit from the facilities available there. The barefoot
doctors in the late 1960s became a model for the World

Health Organization, which created a strategy of including
traditional herbal practitioners in planning for the health care
needs of developing countries.

Western Medicine & Herbal Practices

Further to the initiative by the World Health Organization,
experience has shown that traditional (usually herbal) and
Western medicine can indeed work well in tandem, although
the relationship is often quite complex. J. M. Janzen's The Quest
for Therapy in Lower Zaire (University of California Press, 1978)
describes one such interaction in Africa:

“The people of Zaire recognize the advantages of
Western medicine and seek its surgery, drugs, and hospital
care, but contrary to what might have been expected, native
doctors, prophets, and traditional consultations among
kinsmen do not disappear with the adoption of Western
medicine. Rather a [working relationship] has developed
in which different forms of therapy play complementary rather
than competitive roles in the thoughts and lives of the people.”

The high cost of Western medical treatment is another
factor that has encouraged people and governments to
re-examine traditional healing. In China, Mexico, Cuba, Egypt,
Ghana, India, and Mongolia, to give but a few examples, herbal
medicines are being cultivated in greater quantities, and are
being used to some degree by conventional as well as
traditional practitioners.

Likewise, different types of treatment have evolved
to meet the variety of needs within a population. India offers
an extraordinary example of the kind of choices available
in types of medical care. Alongside physicians trained in
conventional Western medicine, there are medically trained
Ayurvedic practitioners, traditional Ayurvedic practitioners,
local healers, and homeopaths.

Changing Attitudes

Perhaps the most important factor behind the growing
interest in complementary medicine is the poor state of
health in Western societies. Conventional medicine has by
and large brought serious infectious diseases under control,
although there are worrying signs that infectious organisms
are becoming resistant to antibiotic treatment, largely as a
result of their indiscriminate use. Chronic illness, however,
seems to be on the increase. Probably around 50 percent
of people in Western countries daily take one or more
conventional medicines—for conditions as diverse as high
blood pressure, asthma, arthritis, and depression. Many
Western countries such as the U.S. and France spend
astronomical sums on health care, yet despite this massive
investment, much of the population remains demonstrably
unhealthy. Even the significant increase in life expectancy in
developed countries is starting to go into reverse, perhaps
a result of environmental pollutants and toxic accumulation
within the body.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Over the years, changes in public awareness have led to a
renewed interest in herbal medicine. In fact, some herbal
preparations are now so commonly used that they are
accepted as a part of everyday life. One of many possible
examples is evening primrose oil, which is used by hundreds
of thousands of women in Britain to help relieve premenstrual
syndrome. It is extracted from the seeds of Oenothera biennis
(p. 241), a North American plant. Peppermint oil (Mentha x
piperita, p. I 14), prescribed for irritable bowel syndrome and
other gut problems, is another example, while senna (Cassia
senna, p. 75), a simple, effective treatment for short-term
constipation, is one of the most frequently used medicines
throughout the world.

The growing awareness of how our lives as human beings
are interwoven with the fate of our planet also reinforces the
value of herbal medicines. As long as care is taken to prevent
overharvesting, herbal medicine is ecologically in tune with
the environment.

Evening primrose is native to North America and has been used to treat a wide range
of conditions, including premenstrual syndrome, asthma, whooping cough, digestive
disorders, and eczema.

Herbalism & Holism

30

The “germ theory of disease,” which holds that illness
springs from contact with an infectious organism, remains
the dominant view in mainstream medicine. Many people,
however, recognize that this is only part of the picture.
While illnesses such as cholera and typhoid are highly
infectious and are indeed likely to be caught by almost
anyone, many infectious diseases are not transmitted
automatically from one person to another. The question
arises, therefore, what weakness in the patient has allowed
the “seed” of infection to find fertile ground? Unlike much
conventional medical practice, which focuses on eradicating
the “bug” or abnormal condition, herbal medicine seeks to
treat the weakness that gave rise to ill health, and sets this
in the context of the patient’s life as a whole. A complex
web of factors may lie behind the onset of illness. While
bodily signs and symptoms are the most obvious indicators,
dietary, emotional, and spiritual factors may be of
equal importance.

Our bodies contain over one hundred trillion cells, which
collectively must function in harmony if good health is to be
maintained. Used wisely, herbs work in tune with our bodies,
stimulating, supporting, or restraining different sets of cells in
their allotted tasks within the body, encouraging a return to
normal balanced function. Remedies aim to strengthen the
patient’s own resistance, improve the vitality of weakened
tissue, and encourage the body's innate ability to return to
good health.

Of course, for people with severe acute illnesses, it may
be too late to use an herbal approach to treatment. In these
circumstances, strong-acting conventional medicines such
as heart drugs, antibiotics, and painkillers, as well as surgery,
can all be lifesavers. However, a health-care system that
is carefully attuned to the needs of the patient might well

provide herbal remedies as a first line of treatment, with
conventional medicines held in reserve to be used only
when necessary.

Evidence in Support of Herbal Cures

Many medical scientists still find it hard to accept that natural
medicines, with their complex chemical makeup and variable
constituents, can be as good as chemical cures in treating illness.
However, as more and more research reveals that herbal
medicines can be as effective as conventional medicines—and are
far safer—this thinking is beginning to change.

This is well illustrated by the change in attitude toward
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum, p. 106)—a European
plant commonly taken as an antidepressant. Extracts of the
herb are now scientifically recognized as having value in mild
to moderate depression. Since the 1980s, over 30 clinical
trials have found extracts of St. John's wort to be as effective
as conventional antidepressants and to have far fewer side
effects. In 15 of these trials, the herbal extract produced
fewer side effects than the placebo (or inert “medicine”)
used as a comparison. Other investigations suggest that St.
John’s wort may have a role in countering viral infections,
promoting wound healing, and helping withdrawal from
addiction, especially from alcohol.

As is so often the case, research has confirmed traditional
views. In the 16th century, Paracelsus (see p. 23) had this
to say about the herb: “Nothing chases away disease like
strength. Therefore, we should seek medicines with power
and strength to overcome whatever illnesses they are used
against. From this it follows that God has given to Perforatum
[St. John’s wort] the strength to chase [away] the ghosts of
nature.. .and all downheartedness.”

As a result of scientific research, today's practitioners have
an important advantage—how the plant works in the body is

now better understood, so that it is possible to be precise
about dosages, aware of side effects, and confident in what
form the herb should be taken as a medicine.

All over the world research is now being directed into
plants with a traditional use as medicines, in the hope of
finding new treatments for all manner of health problems.
To give but two examples: the Indian gooseberry ( Emblica
officinalis, p. 204) appears to protect the liver against cancer,
lowers blood cholesterol levels, and may prove valuable
for acute pancreatitis; while thyme ( Thymus vulgaris, p. 143),
better known as a culinary herb, is a potent antioxidant that
may prevent the breakdown of essential fatty acids in the
brain and slow the aging process.

Medicinal Herbs & Big Business

The major pharmaceutical companies have realized that
rainforests, grasslands, and even along roads and fields are
sources of potentially invaluable medicines. As a result, the
industry has invested vast resources into screening the active
constituents of medicinal plants from all over the world.
The drugtaxol, first extracted from the Pacific yew ( Taxus
brevifolia), and one of the most effective treatments for
breast cancer, was developed in this way.

In this search through the plant world it is likely that
other remarkable medicines will be found, though far
fewer new drugs have been successfully developed via this
research than was originally anticipated. In fact, there is a key
problem to this approach, for it is geared to the production
of isolated plant chemicals which can then be synthesized
and patented. With a patent, a company can make a profit,
recouping the massive investment required to research
and develop new medicines. Herbs, however, are whole,
naturally occurring remedies. They cannot and should
not be patented. Even if the major
pharmaceutical companies were able
to find an herb such as St. John’s wort,
which proved to be more effective
and safer than conventional
medicines, they would prefer
to develop synthetic chemical
drugs rather than
plant medicines.

Herbal Synergy

One word more than
any other separates herbal
from conventional medicine:
synergy. When the whole plant
is used rather than extracted
constituents, the different

St. John’s wort’s traditional use as a remedy for
nervous exhaustion and depression has been
confirmed by clinical trials.

yjUg

parts interact, often, it is thought,
producing a greater therapeutic
effect than the equivalent dosage
of isolated active constituents
that are generally preferred in
conventional medicine.

Increasingly, research shows
that herbs such as ephedra
(Ephedra sinica, p. 95), hawthorn
(Crataegus oxyacantha, p. 87),
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba, p. 100),
and lily of the valley (Convallaria
majalis, p. 194) have a greater-
than-expected medicinal benefit
thanks to the natural combination
of constituents within the whole
plant. In some cases, the medicinal value of the herb may be
due entirely to the combination of substances and cannot
be reproduced by one or two “active” constituents alone.

The Future of Herbal Medicine

The main issue for the future of herbal medicine is whether
medicinal plants, and the traditional knowledge that informs
their use, will be valued for what they are—an immense
resource of safe, economical, ecologically balanced
medicines—or whether they will be yet another area of life
to be exploited for short-term profit.

Another issue is convincing skeptics in the medical
world that herbal medicine is not just a poor substitute for
conventional medicine, but a valuable form of treatment in its
own right. In trials into the effect of certain Chinese herbs
on patients with eczema at Londons Royal Free Hospital in
the early 1990s, conventional specialists were astonished
when the addition of one extra herb to a Chinese formula
containing 10 others resulted in a dramatic improvement in a
previously unresponsive patient. This story offers evidence of
the skill and art involved in herbal practice. In tailoring the
remedy to suit the individual needs of the patient and in
treating the underlying cause, major improvements were
made. This approach is a far cry from the standard medical
view of using a single drug to treat a single disease.

In India and China, there have been university courses in
herbal medicine for decades. In the West this process has
been slower, with undergraduate courses emerging only in
the last 20 years. There are now degree courses in herbal
medicine or naturopathy in several Western countries,
including Australia, the UK, and the U.S., while in Germany,
medical students have been required to study naturopathy
and phytotherapy (herbal medicine) as part of their medical
training since 2003. Such developments point toward a future
where patients might be able to choose between medical and
herbal approaches when considering what medical treatment
will suit them best.

The Moreton Bay chestnut is being
investigated for its anti-HIV activity.

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20TH CENTURY ONWARD

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Valerian tincture

St. John’s wort

(,Hypericum
perforatum, p. 106)
is an astringent and
antiviral herb, and
is widely used in
Europe as a remedy
for depression.

St. John’s wort
infused oil

Dried St. John’s wort

Valerian (Valeriana
officinalis, p. 148) is a
good herb for calming
nervous tension.

Goldenrod (Solidago
virgaurea, p. 271) is
an astringent herb
taken for sore throats,
congestion, and
problems of the
urinary tract.

Calendula (Calendula
officinalis, p. 73) is
an age-old remedy
for soothing
inflamed skin.

Fresh and dried
calendula petals

Despite regional variations, European herbal
practices largely arose from the common root
of the classical tradition. Today, herbalism is
increasingly popular in Europe, and in some countries it is
widely practiced by orthodox medical practitioners as well as
by qualified herbalists.

Each of the world’s major herbal traditions developed its own framework
for making sense of illness. In Europe, the principal model for understanding
and explaining illness was the “theory of the four humors,” which persisted
well into the 17th century. It was laid down by Galen (13 1-201 ce),
physician to the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. Galen was born in
Pergamum, and part of his medical practice involved caring for the gladiators
of the city, which gave him the opportunity to learn about anatomy and the
remedies best suited to healing wounds. He wrote literally hundreds of
books and had a crucial influence on European medicine for over 1,500
years. To this day, plant medicines are sometimes called Galenicals to
distinguish them from synthesized drugs.

The Theory of the Four Humors

Galen developed his ideas from the texts of Hippocrates (460-c. 377 bce)
and Aristotle (384-322 bce), who in turn had been influenced by Egyptian
and Indian ideas. Hippocrates, expanding on the early belief that the world
was made up of the elements fire, air, earth, and water, classified herbs as
having hot, dry, cold, and moist properties. Aristotle developed and endorsed
the theory of the four humors. According to the theory, four principal
fluids—or humors—exist within the body: blood, choler (yellow bile),
melancholy (black bile), and phlegm. The “ideal” person bore all four
in equal proportion. However, in most people, one or more humors
predominate, giving rise to particular temperaments or characters. For
instance, excess choler produced a choleric-type person, who was likely
to be short-tempered, sallow, ambitious, and vengeful. Galen also believed
that pneuma (spirit) was taken in with each breath, and processed in
the body to form the “vital spirit.” Vitality and health depended upon the
proper balance between the four humors and the four elements and
the correct mix with the inspired pneuma.

Influence of Classical Herbalists

Two other classical writers strongly influenced the European
herbal tradition. Dioscorides (40-90 ce), a Greek-born Roman
army surgeon, wrote the classical world’s most comprehensive
book on herbal medicines, De Materia Medica, based on
observations of nearly 600 plants. Pliny the Elder (23-79
ce) drew together writings from over 400 authors in
his Natural History, recording, among other things,
k. herbal lore of the time. Much traditional European
knowledge of medicinal herbs comes from
. Dioscorides and Pliny. One of the most
interesting herbs mentioned by both is

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Season

Spring

Part of the body

Heart

Humor

Blood

Temperament

Sanguine

Season Winter
Part of the body

Brain

Humor

Phlegm

Temperament

Phlegmatic

MOIST

WATER

FIRE

HOT

AIR

Season Summer
Part of the body
Liver
Humor
Yellow bile
Temperament
Choleric

COLD earth DRY

Season

Spring

Part of the body

Heart

Humor

Blood

Temperament

Sanguine

The ancient theory of the four humors holds that four fluids within the body—black bile, phlegm, yellow bile,
and blood—correspond to the four elements (earth, water, air, and fire), the four seasons, and other aspects
of the natural world. Until the I 7th century, physicians believed that an imbalance of the humoral system
caused mental and physical illness.

mandrake (Mandragora officinarum, see p. 232). With a forked root that
resembles the human shape, mandrake was credited with great magical
and healing powers. It was recommended by Dioscorides for many
ailments, including sleeplessness and inflammation of the eyes.

With the collapse of the Roman empire in the 5th century ce, the
debate about how illness arose and how it should be treated shifted to
the East. By the 9th century, Islamic physicians had translated much of Galen’s
work into Arabic, and his ideas affected the development of Arabic medicine
into the Middle Ages, influencing Avicenna (980-1037). Later in the
Middle Ages, Galen’s writings were translated back into Latin from the
Arabic and, for 400 years, his ideas held sway and were diligently applied in
European medical practice. Even in the 16th and 17th centuries, students
in university medical schools were given an academic training in the
principles of the humoral system, as established by Galen. They learned
how to diagnose an imbalance of the humors, and the methods of
restoring equilibrium, primarily bloodletting and purging (see pp. 23-24).

Printing & Herbal Medicine

The invention of printing in the 15th century changed the face of herbal
medicine in Europe. Before that time, European folk medicine had been
handed down from generation to generation. While some early herbals
were written in Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, and Welsh, for example, for the
most part the tradition was orally based.

During the following centuries, herbals were published throughout
Europe in different languages, making standardized catalogs of herbs and
their applications accessible to the general public, not just to those who
understood Latin. As literacy rates rose, women in particular used the
advice in the herbals to treat their families.

Fresh hops

Dried hops

Hops (Humulus lupulus,
p. 104) are generally
sedative, but they
also stimulate
digestive function.

Feverfew (Tanacetum
parthenium, p. 140) is
hailed as a breakthrough
treatment for migraine.

Yarrow (Achillea
millefolium, p. 56)
may have been used
by Achilles’ troops in
the Trojan war to
staunch bleeding.

Angelica (Angelica
archangelica, p. 168)
treats indigestion.

Chaste tree

(Vitex agnus-castus,
p. 151) relieves
menopausal problems.

Nettle (Urtica dioica,
p. 146) treats anemia.

Hyssop (Hyssopus
officinalis, p. 222)
was prescribed by
Hippocrates for pleurisy.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis, p. 128) is
traditionally taken to
improve the memory.

Cramp bark

(Viburnum opulus,
p. 150) relaxes
muscles.

Cramp bark
berries

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Blackberry (Rubus
fruticosus, p. 264) is
a cleansing, diuretic
plant that was
recommended by
classical physicians.

Fresh rosemary

Marshmallow

(Althaea officinalis,
p. 165) is a soothing
remedy for gastritis
and irritable bowel
syndrome. The
ancient Greek
physician Pliny
extolled the plant
as a cure-all.

Marshmallow flowers

Milk thistle

(Silybum marianum,
p. 137) protects the
liver from damage.

Milk thistle capsules

Elderflower

(Sambucus nigra,
p. 132) helps to
relieve hay fever.

Sage (Salvia officinalis,
p. 131) was
considered a cure-all
in medieval times.

In some cases, the printed herbals were written by physicians, and largely
reflected the writings of classical authors such as Dioscorides. In other
instances they were based directly on first-hand experience—-the English
herbals of John Gerard (1597) and Nicholas Culpeper (1652) being
good examples.

John Gerard’s The Herbal/ is clearly the work of a horticulturist, rather
than of an herbal practitioner, but is nonetheless a mine of information.
The book includes many plants that had been recently brought back to
Europe by explorers and traders.

Culpeper’s The English Physitian has been widely used as a practical
reference book ever since its publication. It is a rich blend of personal
and practical experience, traditional European medicine, and astrological
thought. Each herb is assigned a “temperature,” a use within the humoral
system, and a ruling planet and star sign. Like Dioscorides’ De Materia
Medica, it has the merit of being based on close observation and extensive
experience in the use of herbal medicines.

Foreign Herbs & Synthesized Drugs

The growing use of foreign herbs in the 17th century prompted heated
debate about the relative value of indigenous European herbs, but for the
majority of the population this was irrelevant as the imported herbs were
well out of their price range. In the end, it created a rift in herbal medicine.
Poor and rural peoples used locally available herbs, while affluent city-
dwellers and aristocrats purchased plants of foreign origin, prescribed
by university-trained physicians. By the beginning of the 18th century,
approximately 70 percent of plant medicines stocked by European
apothecaries were imported. Overtime, this city-based herbalism evolved
into conventional scientific medicine, which in turn rejected its herbal roots
and regarded plant medicines as inferior.

Once conventional medicine established its monopoly of practice—in
most European countries by the end of the 19th century—it became (and
in many cases still remains) illegal to practice herbalism without medical
certification. In Greece, traditional herbalists, known as komboyannites, were
persecuted, and the word itself became an insult meaning “trickster”
or “quack.” In France and Italy, experienced traditional herbalists were
imprisoned for providing treatment to their patients. The renaissance in
herbal medicine that has occurred in the last 40 years offers hope that
official censure will change.

Modern Practitioners

The pattern of herbal medicine
across Europe today is remarkably
varied, but a common thread runs
through the different traditions and
practices. Most European herbalists
use orthodox methods of diagnosis,
looking for signs of infection and
inflammation, for example. However,
most also try to establish a broad,
holistic picture, placing the illness in
the context of the patient's life as a
whole. Herbalists then choose plant
medicines and recommend suitable

Healers in medieval Europe frequently sought to
restore physical imbalance with bloodletting, purges,
and preparations that caused vomiting.

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dietary and lifestyle changes that will
allow the body’s self-regenerating
powers—the modern equivalent of the
“vital spirit”—to establish good health
once again. Recovery may take longer
than it would if treated with conventional
medicine, but relief is generally enduring
and free from side effects.

A patient with a stomach ulcer, for
example, may be treated with a variety
of herbs such as meadowsweet
(i Filipendula ulmaria, p. 98), German
chamomile (Chamomilla recutita, p. 77),
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis, p. 165),
and deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna,
p. 69) to soothe inflammation, astringe,
and protect the inner lining of the stomach,
and reduce excess acid production. In
addition, herbal practitioners also address
poor dietary habits, bad posture, and stress—which are all conditions that
may have undermined the body’s healing ability. Problems such as these
are reversed with herbs to relieve stress, a diet rich in non-acidic
vegetables and fruits, and exercise.

Popular Herbs

In European herbal medicine, native herbs are still highly popular. Alpine
plants such as arnica ( Arnica montana, p. 172) and pulsatilla (Anemone
pulsatilla, p. 168) are much used in Swiss, German, Italian, and French herbal
medicine, while comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138) is particularly well
liked in Britain. There has also been a surge in demand for exotic herbs. The
Chinese ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba, p. 100), which improves circulation of
blood to the head and helps the memory, is now cultivated in vast plantations
in France, and has been a bestselling medicine in Germany for over 20 years.

European Traditions & the Future

Sales of over-the-counter herbal medicines in Europe have continued to
increase over the last two decades, though the reasons for this growth
vary widely.

It is possibly a reaction to the over-reliance on drug treatment in
conventional medicine. Sound advice on a healthy diet and lifestyle,
including food herbs, such as turmeric (Curcuma longa, p. 90), might well
prove more beneficial than conventionally prescribed drugs in helping
an aging population to stay healthy for longer.

Nevertheless, in several European countries herbal medicines are
routinely prescribed, offering doctors a choice of gentle-acting
treatments for chronic and more minor health problems. In Germany and
Poland, herbal medicines can be frontline treatments for digestive disorders
and chronic problems such as arthritis. This approach leaves conventional
drug treatments available for more acute or serious conditions.

In contrast, a barely reported trend is that more and more people are
growing medicinal plants. There seems to be a desire to rediscover the
magic of cultivating and harvesting plants, and involving them (as food and
medicine) in one's daily life.

Dried feverfew

Hawthorn (Crataegus
oxyacantha, p. 87)
has a marked tonic
effect on the heart.

Dried hawthorn
flowers and berries

Cowslip (Primula
veris, p. 256) is a
sedative plant that
helps calm what
herbalist John Gerard
called “the frensies.”

Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris, p. 143) is a
good antiseptic and
tonic herb. It is
particularly effective
as a treatment for
chest infections.

Common foxglove

(Digitalis purpurea,
p. 202) is the
source of digitalis,
a widely used
cardiac stimulant.

Heartsease (Viola
tricolor, p. 282)
gained its name
from its former
use in love potions.
It is an effective
expectorant, treating
coughs and colds.

Lavender (Lavandula
officinalis, p. 108)
yields an essential oil
that is a good first-aid
remedy for insect
bites and sunburn.

35

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Myrtle (Myrtus
communis, p. 239)
is cultivated for its
oil, which is used
for bronchitis.

Castor oil plant

(Ricinus communis,
p. 262) is prescribed
in India for nervous
disorders.

Garlic capsules

Garlic cloves

Garlic (Allium
sativum, p. 59) is
a key herb in
Ayurvedic medicine,
highly regarded for
0 its detoxifying
properties.

Storax (Liquidambar
orientalis, p. 229)
is an important
ingredient in Western
cough mixtures.

Powdered garlic

Licorice

(Glycyrrhiza glabra,
p. 101) grows
wild in India. It is
an indispensable
medicinal herb.

Garlic pearls

Cloves (Eugenia
caryophyllata, p. 97)
help infections
ranging from scabies
to cholera.

Dried licorice root

Powdered
licorice root

Fresh licorice

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

India and the
Middle East

In India and the neighboring regions, a variety of herbal traditions
continue to flourish. Ayurveda is the main system of healing in
India, but Unani Tibb, traditional Arabic medicine, and Siddha,
practised in Tamil areas of southern India and Sri Lanka, are also
major herbal traditions.

The name Ayurveda derives from two Indian words: ayur meaning
longevity, and veda meaning knowledge or science. Ayurveda is as much a
way of life as a system of medicine, and encompasses science, religion, and
philosophy. Its ultimate aim, drawing on its many different practices—yoga
and meditation, for example—is to promote self-realization and a
harmonious relationship with the world.

Early Origins

Ancient Indian culture developed around 5,000 years ago along the banks
of the Indus river in northern India. This is thought of as a time of great
spiritual enlightenment, with knowledge and wisdom being transmitted
orally from teacher to student over many generations, and eventually set
down in Sanskrit poetry known as the Vedas. These writings, dating from
approximately 1500 bce, distilled the prevailing historical, religious,
philosophical, and medical knowledge, and form the basis of Indian culture.
The most important of these texts are the Rig Veda and the Atharva Veda.

In about 400 bce, the first Ayurvedic medical school was founded by
Punarvasu Atreya. He and his pupils recorded medical knowledge in treatises
that would in turn influence Charaka, the scholar who is thought to have
written the Charaka Samhita. This compendium of writings, in the form
that it has come down to us, dates from around 1 00 ce and describes
341 plant medicines as well as medicines of animal and mineral origin. The
second major work was the Susruta Samhita, dating from around the same
time; it displays detailed knowledge of surgery, especially plastic surgery,
and is still consulted today.

The Influence of Ayurveda

Other traditions of medicine share common roots with Ayurveda, and
Ayurveda has some claim to being the oldest surviving medical tradition

in the world. From the time of
the Buddha (563-483 bce) onward,
Ayurvedic medical ideas and
practices spread across Asia,
accompanying the spread of
Buddhism itself. Buddhism, and
Ayurvedic approaches to medicine,
strongly influenced the development
of Tibetan medicine, and these
ideas in turn combined fruitfully
with traditional Chinese medicine.
Ancient civilizations of East and

Cloves have been used medicinally for thousands of
years in India. The flower buds are dried in the open air.

INDIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

West were linked to one another
by trade routes, campaigns, and
wars. In each case, this led to the
exchange of ideas, medicinal
plants, and medical practices,
including fertile connections
between Ayurveda, Siddha, and
traditional Chinese medicine
to the east, and ancient Greek
and Roman medicine to the west.

Later, from around 700 ce,
traditional Greek medicine, based
on Hippocratic ideas, developed
in the Arabic world as classical
Greek texts were translated
into Arabic. This tradition,
known as Unani Tibb

, . M The chakras are represented in this figure. India s medical

^meaning Ionian medicine, system, Ayurveda, identifies seven energy centers, chakras,

referring to the island of Iona sited along the spinal column from the head to the base of

where H i ppocrates I ived) the s P" ie - 7 they are Wocted - i,lness results.

at one time spanned from India to Spain, and is still the main form of
herbal medicine practiced by hakims in the Middle East.

The Five Elements

Ayurveda is a unique holistic system, based on the interaction of body,
mind, and spirit. In Ayurveda, the origin of all aspects of existence is pure
intellect or consciousness. Energy and matter are one. Energy is
manifested in five elements—ether, air, fire, water, and earth—which
together form the basis of all matter. In the body, ether is present in the
cavities of the mouth, abdomen, digestive tract, thorax, and lungs. Air
is manifested in the movements of the muscles, pulsations of the heart,
expansion and contraction of the lungs, and the workings of the digestive
tract and the nervous system. Fire is manifested in the digestive system,
metabolism, body temperature, vision, and intelligence. Water is present
in the digestive juices, salivary glands, mucous membranes, blood, and
cytoplasm. Earth exists in the nails, skin, and hair, as well as in the elements
that hold the body together: bones, cartilage, muscles, and tendons.

The five elements manifest in the functioning of the five senses, and
they are closely related to our ability to perceive and interact with the
environment in which we live. In Ayurveda, ether, air, fire, water and earth
correspond to hearing, touch, vision, taste, and smell respectively.

The Doshas & Health

The five elements combine to form three basic forces, known as the
tridoshas, which exist in everything in the universe, and influence all mental
and physical processes. From ether and air, the air principle vata is created;
fire and water yield the fire principle pitta ; and earth and water produce
the water principle kapha. The principles correspond closely to the three
humors of Tibetan medicine and somewhat resemble Galen’s theory of
the four humors (see p. 32).

According to Ayurveda, we are all born with a particular balance of
doshas. The proportions are largely determined by the balance of doshas
in our parents at the time of our conception. Our body type,

Nutmeg & mace

(Myristica fragrans,
p. 115) are different
parts of the same
tree. In India, nutmeg
paste is applied to
eczema, and mace is a
warming herb for
stomach infections.

Nutmeg

Mace

Fresh holy basil

Holy basil seeds

A*

Turmeric (Curcuma
longa, p. 90) is a
traditional Ayurvedic
remedy for jaundice.

Holy basil (Ocimum
tenuifolium, p. 116) is
often planted in
temple courtyards
in India. It is used in
Ayurvedic medicine
to protect the heart,
and recent research
shows that it lowers
blood pressure.

Balloon vine

(Cardiospermum
spp., p. 183) is used
in Indian herbal
medicine to bring on
delayed menstruation

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Jr

Asafoetida (Ferula
assa-foetida, p. 210)
helps to strengthen
the gastrointestinal
tract. It is often taken
to treat indigestion.

Lennon (Citrus limon,
p. 82). Lemon helps
stave off colds by
improving resistance
to infection. It is
thought to be
native to India.

Dried lemon

Cardamom (Elettaria
cardamomum, p. 93)
has been used in
India for thousands
of years as a
digestive remedy.

Fresh cardamom
leaves

Cardamom seed

Cinnamon

(Cinnamomum spp.,
p. 81) is atonic herb
taken to stimulate
circulation.

Cinnamon sticks

Cinnamon powder

Ashwagandha

(Withania somnifera,
p. 152) has been
called “Indian
ginseng,’’ and,
much like ginseng,
it is used to restore
vitality and treat
nervous exhaustion.

Jequirity (Abrus
precatorius, p. 158).
The seeds have
been used in Asia
as a contraceptive
and abortifacient.

Soy (Glycine max,
p. 217) is a highly
nutritious bean that
has become a staple
crop around the
world. The beans
benefit the
circulatory system.

Soybeans
Soybean pods

temperament, and susceptibility to illnesses are largely governed by the
predominant dosha. In this way we inherit our basic constitution, called
the prakruti, which remains unaltered throughout our lives.

The first requirement for health in Ayurveda is a proper balance of the
doshas. If the balance is upset, illness, ryadhi, results. The disruption may
be manifested in physical discomfort and pain, or in mental and emotional
suffering, including jealousy, anger, fear, and sorrow. While our balance of
doshas influences vulnerability to certain kinds of illness, the principles do
not work in a vacuum.

The effect our lifestyle has on our prakruti—vakruti —has a strong effect
on overall health, and it may easily disrupt dosha balance.

Illness may also result if the flow of energy, prana, around the body
is interrupted. The flow is relayed via the seven chakras (psychic energy
centers), which are situated at various points along the spinal column,
from the crown of the head to the tailbone. If the energy flowing between
these centers is blocked, the likelihood of ill health increases.

Visiting an Ayurvedic Practitioner

An Ayurvedic practitioner first carefully assesses prakruti and vakruti —
constitution and lifestyle. This involves taking a detailed case history and
carefully examining the body, paying attention to the build, the lines
in the face and hands, and skin and hair type—all of which point to
more profound aspects of the patient’s condition. However, the main
foundations on which diagnosis rests are the appearance of the tongue,
and the pulse rate. In these respects, Ayurveda has much in common with
Chinese and Tibetan medicine, in which these two indicators are also
of the greatest importance. A very complex technique for taking the
patient’s pulse has been developed by Ayurvedic practitioners, requiring
many years’ experience.

When a dosha imbalance has been diagnosed, medical treatment and
lifestyle advice are provided. The first step is eliminating toxins, and the
main cleansing and rejuvenation program, known as panchakarma,
includes therapeutic vomiting, purging, enemas, nasal administration of
medication, and purification of the blood.

Attributes of Remedies

Subsequent treatments fall into three main categories: medicines
from natural sources, dietary regimens, and behavioral modifications.
Medicines, foods, and lifestyle activities are all classified according to their
effect on the three doshas. For instance, a health problem associated with
an excess of kapha, the water principle, is characterized by congestion,
excess weight, fluid retention, and lethargy. The practitioner would
prescribe the consumption of warm, dry, light foods, because the quality
of kapha is cool and damp. Avoidance of cold damp foods (such as
wheat, sugar, and milk products), which increase kapha, would also be
advised. Herbal remedies would include warming spices such as ginger
(Zingiber officinale, p. 155) and cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, p. 74), as
well as bitters such as turmeric (Curcuma longa, p. 90).

The specific choice of herbal remedy depends on its “quality” or
“energy,” which Ayurveda determines according to twenty attributes
(vimshati guna) such as hot, cold, wet, dry, heavy, or light. Ayurveda
also classifies remedies according to six tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter,
pungent, and astringent. Sweet, sour, and salty substances increase water

38

INDIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Ayurvedic market doctor. Practitioners prescribe herbal remedies on the basis of their attributes - “warm” and
“cool” are but two of them. The Ayurvedic practitioner’s aim is to balance the patient’s doshas, the principles that
regulate sickness and health.

(kapha) and decrease air ( vata ); bitter, pungent, and astringent remedies
increase air and decrease water; and sour, salty, and pungent herbs increase
fire (pitta).

Preparations & Treatments

In addition to plant extracts, Ayurvedic medicines include honey and dairy
produce, and sometimes minute doses of minerals such as salt are added.
Remedies take the form of pills, powders, balms, and infusions, and most
contain several different ingredients, all carefully balanced to individual
needs. Treatment might include washes and enemas or the application of
poultices as well as massage with warm herbal oil, burning incense, the use
of precious stones and metals, and ritual purification for imbalanced mind
and emotions. The chanting of mantras (incantations based on sacred
texts), breathing, and meditation exercises may be advised, due to the
power of sound and the effect of vibration and meditation on the body
mind, and spirit.

Herbal Medicine in India Today

In the 19th century, the British dismissed Ayurveda as mere superstition,
and in 1833 they closed all Ayurvedic schools and banned the practice.
Great centers of Indian learning thus fell apart, and Ayurvedic knowledge
retreated into villages and temples. At the turn of the century, however,
some Indian physicians and enlightened Englishmen began to reevaluate
Ayurveda, and by the time of India’s independence in 1947 it had regained
its reputation as a valid medical system. Today, Ayurveda flourishes side by
side with Unani Tibb and Western conventional medicine and is actively
encouraged by the Indian government as an inexpensive alternative to
Western drugs. In recent years, Ayurveda has attracted increasing attention
from medical scientists in the West and in Japan, and the World Health
Organization has resolved to promote its practice in developing countries.

Ayurveda’s value lies in the fact that it is not a medical science dealing
solely with treatment of disease. Instead, it offers practical guidelines that
apply to every facet of daily existence. It also seeks to reconcile health and
lifestyle with universal aspects of existence, and to enhance well-being
and promote longevity.

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Sweet flag (Acorns
calamus, p. 57). The
rhizome is taken
as atonic and as
an aphrodisiac.

Fresh sweet flag

Dried sweet flag

Chiretta (S wertia
chirata, p. 273) is
a strongly bitter
herb used to treat
excess pitta (fire),
marked by fever and
liver problems.

Pomegranate (Punica
granatum, p. 259) is
used to make a
traditional Ayurvedic
remedy for dysentery.

Pomegranate flower

Pomegranate fruit

Tea (Camellia
sinensis, p. 181) is
astringent and tonic.

Ginger (Zingiber
officinale, p. 155)
is known as the
“universal medicine”
in Ayurveda. It is
particularly helpful
for relieving nausea
and indigestion.

Ginger root
Ginger powder

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Schisandra

(.Schisandra chinensis,
p. 133). The berries
are eaten for 100
days as atonic.

Sang ye (Morus alba,
p. 237) alleviates the
symptoms of flu.

Codonopsis

(Codonopsis pilosula,
p. 83) restores the
appetite. In China, it is
often added to soups
and vegetable dishes.

Jingjie

(Schizonepeta
tenuifolia, p. 268)
is prescribed for
fevers and measles.

Magnolia (Magnolia
officinalis, p. 232)
relieves cramps and
indigestion.

Chou wu tong

(Clerodendrum
trichotomum, p. 19 I) is
a valuable herb for the
treatment of eczema.

Ginseng (Panax
ginseng, p. 118) helps
the body cope with
stress and fatigue.

Ginseng decoction

Ginseng root

Baical skullcap

(Scutellaria baicalensis,
p. 134) is given
for diarrhea.

Fu ling ( Poria cocos ) is
a fungus that is dried,
compressed, and cut
into cubes. It increases
energy levels.

40

China, Japan, and
Southeast Asia

China's ancient herbal tradition has survived intact into the
21 st century, and in China it is now accorded equal status with
Western conventional medicine. Today, many Chinese universities
teach and research herbal medicine, a factor of crucial importance
in the reemergence of herbalism worldwide.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the herbal tradition that is part
of it developed separately from Chinese folk medicine. It arose from ideas
recorded between 200 bce and 100 ce in the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of
Internal Medicine (Huang Di Neijing). This text is based on detailed
observations of nature and a deep understanding of the way that all life is
subject to natural laws. It contains concepts that are fundamental to TCM,
including yin and yang; the five elements (wu xing ); and the theory of the
effect of nature upon health.

In TCM, living in harmony with these principles is the key to good health
and longevity. According to the Yellow Emperor's Classic, members of
previous generations lived for a hundred years, and had constitutions so
strong that illness was cured by incantations alone. Only later, as human
vitality, or qi, declined and people became “overactive.. .going against the
joy of life,” did herbal medicine, acupuncture, and other branches of TCM
become necessary.

Key Theories

Unlike other herbal traditions that have a unified theory for making sense
of illness and disease (for example, the European theory of the four
humors), TCM has two quite different systems—-the yin and yang theory
and the five elements. They developed quite separately in China, and the
five elements system was only accepted and fully incorporated into Chinese

On the streets of Hong Kong herbal pharmacists are a familiar sight. Prescriptions are formulated during a
consultation with an herbalist, and the patient then obtains the appropriate herbs.

CHINA , JAPAN , AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

WOOD

A

WATER

Season Winter
Climate Cold
Emotion Fear
Taste Salty

Herb Chinese figwort
Action Drains fluids
Parts of the body

Kidneys, Bladder,
Bones, Ears, Hair

Season Spring Climate Windy Emotion Anger
Taste Sour Herb Schisandra Action Astringent
Parts of the body Liver, Gallbladder, Eyes, Tendons

£

FIRE

Season Summer
Climate Hot
Emotion Joy
Taste Bitter
Herb Chinese rhubarb
Action Cooling
Parts of the body
Heart, Small intestine,
Tongue, Blood vessels

METAL

Season Autumn Climate Dry
Emotion Grief Taste Pungent Herb
Ginger Actions Stimulant, Warming
Parts of the body Lungs, Large
intestine, Nose, Skin

EARTH

Season Late summer Climate Damp
Emotion Reflection Taste Sweet
Herb Jujube Actions Tonic, Restorative
Parts of the body Spleen, Stomach,
Mouth, Flesh

The ancient five elements theory is used by the Chinese when writing prescriptions. It associates herbs
with the natural world, including elements, seasons, and parts of the body. In the circular movement,
each element gives rise to the next (for example, winter gives rise to spring). The five-angled movement
is a controlling one, in which each element restrains another.

medicine during the Song dynasty (960-1279 ce). To this day, differences
between these theories are reflected in practitioners’ approaches to
diagnosis and treatment.

In Chinese thought, everything in the universe is composed of yin and
yang —words that were first used to denote the dark and light side of a
valley. Everything has yin and yang aspects, or complementary opposites—
such as day and night, up and down, wet and dry. Every yin or yang category
can itself also be subdivided—so that while the front of the body is yin
relative to the back, which is yang, the abdomen is yin relative to the chest,
which is yang.

The five elements theory associates constituents of the natural
world—wood, fire, earth, metal, and water—with other fundamentals
such as seasons, emotions, and parts of the body. Each element gives rise to
the next in a perpetual fashion (see diagram above). For this reason, the
system might be more accurately described as the five phases,
representing the process of continual movement in life. The five elements
have a central role in Chinese herbal medicine, especially in the grouping of
tastes of herbs and parts of the body.

Diagnosis & Treatment

Instead of looking for causes of illness, Chinese practitioners seek patterns
of disharmony, which are expressions of imbalance between yin and yang.
Particular attention is given to reading the pulse and tongue, both of which
are very important for an accurate diagnosis. Ill health results from a
deficiency or excess of either yin or yang. A cold, for example, is not just
the result of a virus (though this clearly is a cause), but a sign that the body
is not adapting to external factors such as “wind-heat,” “wind-cold,” or
“summer-heat.” A high temperature denotes too much yang and shivering

Fo ti

(Polygonum multiforum,
p. 124), the oldest
Chinese tonic herb, is
used to prevent aging.

Dong quai

(Angelica sinensis,
p. 63) is taken by
millions of Chinese
women as a nourishing
blood tonic.

Galangal (Alpinia
offcinarum, p. 61) is a
warming herb used for
abdominal pain.

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum
cassia, p. 81) is a
warming herb that
helps the circulation.

Notopterygium root

(Notopterygium incisium,
p. 240) is used in China
for colds, especially those
accompanied by aching
muscles and joints.

Ginkgo

tablets

Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba,
p. 100) improves
the memory and the
circulation. Tablets,
made from the leaves,
are a bestselling herbal
remedy in Europe.

Ginkgo

seeds

Ginkgo

leaves

Su xian hua

(jasminum officinale,
see J. grandiforum,
p. 224) is an aromatic
herb used to treat
depression.

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Goji berry (Lycium
chinense, p. I I I) is
used in China as a
blood tonic.

Hong hua (Carthamus
tinctorius, p. 184).
Known as safflower in
the West, hong hua is
used in China to induce
menstruation and to
help heal wounds.

White peony

(J Paeonia lactiflora,
p. 117) helps
menstrual complaints.
In China, women who
take the root regularly
are thought to
become as beautiful
as the flower itself.

Huo xiang (Agastache
rugosa, p. 161)
stimulates and warms
the digestive tract.

Ephedra (Ephedra
sinica, p. 95) contains
ephedrine, used in
Western medicine
to treat asthma.

Ephedra tincture

Dried Ephedra

Chinese rhubarb

(Rheum palmatum, p. 126)
is laxative in large doses
and constipating in
small ones.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

is the result of an excess of yin. The art of the Chinese herbal practitioner
is to restore harmony between yin and yang both within the patient’s body
and between the patient and the world at large.

Chinese Herbs

Over the centuries, the number of medicinal herbs has grown, and the
1977 Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicinal Substances has 5,757
entries, the majority of which are herbs. The Communist Revolution in
1949 helped swell the number of plants used in TCM, because herbs that
had previously only been employed in folk medicine were incorporated
into the tradition.

As the herbal tradition developed within TCM, the taste and other
characteristics of herbs became closely linked with their therapeutic uses.
The Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong 8 encaojing, I st century ce) lists
252 herbal medicines specifying their tastes and “temperatures,” and today,
Chinese herbalists still relate the taste and temperature of an herb directly

to its therapeutic use. Sweet-tasting
herbs such as ginseng (Panax ginseng,
p. 118) are prescribed to tone,
harmonize, and moisten, while bitter¬
tasting herbs such as dan shen (Salvia
miltiorrhiza, p. 130) are employed
to drain and dry excess “dampness.”
Hot-tasting herbs are used for
treating “cold” conditions and vice
versa. Together, an herb’s taste and
temperature link it to specific types
of illness. For example, Baical skullcap
(Scutellaria baicalensis, p. 134), which
is bitter-tasting and “cold,” is a drying, cooling herb for conditions such as
fever and irritability, brought on by patterns of excess heat.

Taking Medicines

The Chinese tradition relies heavily on formulas, which are set mixtures
of herbs that have proven effectiveness as tonics or remedies for specific
illnesses. Many are available over the counter and are used by millions of
people every day in China and around the world. Chinese herbalists
often take a formula as a starting point and then add other herbs to the
mixture. There are hundreds of formulas, one of the most famous being
“Four Things Soup,” atonic given to regulate the menstrual cycle and
tone the reproductive system. It consists of dong quai (Angelica sinensis,
p. 63), rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa, p. 125), chuang xiong (Ligusticum
wallachii ), and white peony (Paeonia lactiflora, p. I 17).

Chinese herbal medicine uses tinctures or alcoholic extracts of herbs,
but only infrequently. Generally, patients are given mixtures of roots and
bark to take as decoctions two or three times a day.

The Chinese Influence in Japan & Korea

Japan and Korea have been strongly influenced by Chinese medical
ideas and practices. Kampoh, traditional Japanese medicine, traces its
origins back to the 5th century ce, when Buddhist monks from Korea
introduced their healing arts, largely derived from Chinese medicine,
into Japan. In the following century, the Empress Suiko (592-628 ce)

Many herbal preparations are available to Chinese
practitioners.

42

CHINA, JAPAN, AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

sent envoys to China to study that country’s culture
and medicine. Direct Chinese influence on Japanese
medicine, which was practiced for the most
part by the monks, continued for 1,000
years. In the 16th century, Japan started
to assert its cultural identity, and kampoh
developed its own characteristic traits,
emphasizing the Japanese ideals of
simplicity and naturalness. However,
certain Chinese concepts, such as
yin and yang and ki ( qi ), continued
to have a central role.

In 1868, the Japanese embraced
Western conventional medicine.

Formal training in kampoh officially
ceased in 1885, but a few committed
practitioners passed their knowledge
on to younger generations, keeping
the tradition alive. In the last 40 years
the number of medical practitioners who use kampoh within their
practice has greatly increased. Many Japanese medical schools now
include training in kampoh as part of the curriculum.

Korean herbal medicine is very similar to mainstream Chinese herbal
medicine, and almost all the Chinese herbs are used in Korea. Ginseng
(Panax ginseng, p. 118) has been cultivated in Korea for home use and
export since 1300.

The tai chi symbol (in the center of the silk material)
illustrates the harmony of yin and yang. An imbalance
of these principles leads to illness.

Importance of Chinese Herbal Medicine

Since 1949 when the Communists gained control, the herbal tradition
has flourished in China (see p. 29) and today it is recognized as a valid
medical system, available to the Chinese on an equal footing with
conventional Western medicine. As is often the case elsewhere, herbs
seem to be used mainly for chronic conditions, while Western medicine
is more frequently employed for serious acute illness.

Chinese herbal medicine, however, is not just of significance in China
and the surrounding regions, but is practiced by trained practitioners in
every continent and, in some countries, now has official government
recognition. For example, there has been a traditional Chinese medicine
hospital in Paris since 1996, and in 2013 the French government agreed
to open three new traditional Chinese medicine hospital centers. Herbal
medicine is now taught in 34 Chinese universities. This development (and
the massive input of resources involved) has helped revitalize herbal
medicine around the world over the past 30 to 40 years.

The impact of these developments has not been confined solely
to those taking herbal medicines—whether in China or elsewhere.

In 2015 Dr. Tu Youyou, a researcher trained in traditional Chinese
medicine and conventional medicine, was awarded the Nobel Prize
for medicine for her lifelong study of sweet Annie (Artemisia annua,
p. 67) and its key active constituent artemisinin. From her base at the
Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Beijing, she proved that
the herb (and its active constituent) had unusually potent antimalarial
activity. Artemisinin has now become the standard treatment for
acute malaria.

43

Ju hua

(Chrysanthemum x
morifolium, p. 78) is
popular as a relaxing
infusion. It also
improves vision.

Corydalis rhizome

Corydalis

('Corydalis yanhusuo,
p. 86) has a potent
painkilling action.

Corydalis tincture

Zhe bei mu (Fritillaria
thunbergii) is taken
in eastern China for
coughs and bronchitis.

Lycium aerial parts

Coptis (Coptis
chinensis, p. 195)
has been shown to
improve tuberculosis
in a clinical trial.

Fo ti

(Polygonum multiflorum,
p. 124) is thought
to concentrate qi
(vital spirit) in its
root, and is taken to
improve longevity.

Shan yao

(Dioscorea opposita )
is used in the “Pill of
Eight Ingredients,” a
traditional Chinese
remedy for diabetes.

Suan zhoa ren

(Ziziphus spinosa,
see Z.jujuba, p. 283)
is used in Chinese
medicine to “nourish
the heart and
cleanse the spirit.”

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Calumba (Jateorhiza
palmato, p. 224) is a
bitter herb that is used
as a digestive remedy
and as a means to
improve the appetite.

Buchu (Barosma betulina,
p. 71) has a diuretic and
tonic effect within the
urinary tract. It is infused
in oil to make perfume.

Coffee (Coffea arabica,
p. 192). According to
legend, an Islamic mullah
discovered the stimulating
effect of coffee by
observing the frisky
behavior of goats who
had grazed on the beans.
Coffee is used medicinally
to treat headaches.

Visnaga leaves

Visnaga (Ammi visnaga,
p. 62) is mentioned in
an Egyptian medical
text of c. 1500 bce
as an herb that relieves
kidney stones. Visnaga
seeds were used to
clean the teeth.

Visnaga seeds

Myrrh (Commiphora
molmol, p. 85) exudes
an astringent resin
that is used to treat
sore throats.

Devil’s claw

(.Harpagophytum
procumbens, p. 103)
is anti-inflammatory
and is now widely
used in the West.

Devil’s claw
rhizome

Devil’s claw
chopped rhizome

Africa

In Africa there is a greater variety of herbal traditions
than on any other continent. During the colonial
period, native herbal practices were largely suppressed, but today,
in a marked turnaround, practitioners of conventional medicine
often work closely with traditional healers.

The therapeutic use of medicinal plants in Africa dates back to the
earliest times. Ancient Egyptian writings confirm that herbal medicines
have been valued in North Africa for millennia. The Ebers papyrus
(c. 1 500 bce), one of the oldest surviving medical texts, includes over
870 prescriptions and formulas, 700 medicinal herbs—including gentian
('Gentiana lute a, p. 99), aloe (Aloe vera, p. 60), and opium poppy
(Papaver somniferum, p. 244)—and covers conditions ranging from
chest complaints to crocodile bite. The medicinal arts put forward
in this and other Egyptian texts formed the intellectual foundation
of classical medical practice in Greece, Rome, and the Arabic world.

Trade & the Arabian Influence

Herbal medicines have been traded between the Middle East, India,
and northeastern Africa for at least 3,000 years. Herbs widely used
in the Middle East, such as myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85), originally
came from Somalia and the Horn of Africa. From the 5th century ce
to the 13th century, Arab physicians were at the forefront of medical
advancement, and in the 8th century, the spread of Arabic culture across
northern Africa had an influence on North African medicine that lasts
to this day. In the mid-13th century, the botanist Ibn El Beitar published
a Materia Medica that considerably increased the range of North African
plant medicines in common use.

Ancient Beliefs & Indigenous Herbs

In the more remote areas of Africa, nomadic peoples, such as the Berber
of Morocco and the Topnaar of Namibia, have herbal traditions that
remain largely unaffected by changes in medicine in the world at large.

For these peoples, healing is linked to a magical world in which spirits
influence illness and death. In Berber culture, possession by a djinn (spirit)
is a major cause of sickness, and herbs with “magical” properties are given
to restore health. If the patient fails to recover, their condition is likely to
be attributed to a curse or to the “evil eye.”

The Topnaar formerly depended completely on their environment for
medicines, using the few medicinal plants that grow in such harsh and arid
conditions. Although they are now heavily influenced by the Western way
of life and have lost much of their plant lore, they continue to employ many
indigenous plants medicinally. The stem of the seaweed Ecklonia maxima,
for example, is roasted, mixed with petroleum jelly, and rubbed into wounds
and burns, while Hoodia currori, a low-lying cactus, is stripped of its thorns and
outer skin and eaten raw to treat coughs and colds.

Throughout Africa, thousands of different wild and locally grown
medicinal plants are sold in the markets. Some are prescribed as medicines
for home use. C>thers, such as kanna (Membryanthemum spp.) and iboga

AFRICA

(Tabernanthe iboga), are chewed to combat fatigue, and are taken as
intoxicants in religious ceremonies. According to local accounts in the
Congo and Gabon, iboga’s stimulant effect was discovered when observers
saw wild boars and gorillas dig up and eat the roots, and subsequently
become frenzied.

Traditional & Conventional Care

Conventional Western medicine is well established
throughout Africa, but in rural areas, far from
medical and hospital services, traditional medicine
remains the only form of health care available.

Even in urban areas conventional health care
services can be limited, and in this situation
traditional providers of care such as spiritualists,
herbalists, and midwives are the main
source of treatment available for
the majority of the population.

The World Health Organization
aims to achieve a level of health
care that will permit all people
to lead socially and economically
productive lives. In an attempt to
meet this, African countries have
pioneered the training of traditional
medicine practitioners in simple
medical techniques and basic
hygiene procedures. In one center
in Mampong, Ghana, conventionally
trained medical staff work hand
in hand with traditional herbal This Nigerian divination bowl was used by traditional

practitioners, encouraging the healers in the diagnosis of illness via the interpretation

r ri I I ,■ , of magical signs.

safer use of herbal medicines and

researching them in detail. In nearby Kumasi, the university now offers a
BS degree in herbal medicine. This represents a remarkable change in
attitude. In the 19th and much of the 20th centuries, colonial governments
and Christian missionaries viewed traditional herbalists as witch doctors,
whose practices were best suppressed.

The Discovery of New Herbal Cures

Along with encouraging the safer use of herbal medicines, medical centers
are researching their use in detail. The benefits of pygeum ( Pygeum africanum,
p. 260) have been conclusively established. This tree is traditionally used in
central and southern Africa to treat urinary problems. Today, it is regularly
prescribed in conventional French and Italian medicine for prostate problems.
Of the plants under investigation in Africa, Kigelia ( Kigelia pinnata, p.

225)—a sub-Saharan tree, and Sutherlandia ( Sutherlandia frutescens )—a
small South African shrub, are of particular interest. Kigelia has a marked
ability to prevent and heal skin lesions, including psoriasis, while
Sutherlandia is an adaptogen with anticancer activity.

The reevaluation of traditional herbal medicine in Africa may result in
the acceptance of additional plant-based medicines. Today, the opportunity
exists to combine the best of traditional practice with conventional medical
knowledge, for mutual gain.

45

Kola nut (Cola
acuminata, p. 192) is
taken in western and
central Africa to
relieve headaches.

Kola nut powder _

Grains of paradise

(Aframomum melegueta )
are used as a condiment
in Africa and are taken
medicinally as a warming
remedy for nausea. .

Pellitory (Anacyclus
pyrethrum, p. I 66)
has an acrid, irritant
root that stimulates
the circulation when
applied to the skin. -

Senna decoction .

Senna pods .

Senna ( Cassia senna, p. 75)
contains anthraquinones—
constituents that cause
the bowel to contract—
hence the plant’s laxative
effect. The plants first
recorded medicinal use was
in Arabia in the 9th century.

Aloe vera (Aloe vera,
p. 60) contains two
medicinal substances,
each with a markedly
different use. The clear
gel from the center of
the leaf speeds the
healing of wounds. Juice
from the base of the leaf,
known as “bitter aloes,”
has laxative properties. .

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Opium
poppy seeds

Opium poppy

(i Papaver somniferum,
p. 244) is cultivated
commercially in
Australia. It is used
extensively in both
conventional and
herbal medicine
as a sedative and
is a very potent
painkiller.

Australian wattle

(Acacia decurrens, see
A. nilotica, p. 159) is
a strongly antiseptic
herb used to treat
conditions where
the skin or mucous
membranes need
tightening or protecting.

Vervain (Verbena
officinalis, p. 149) was
brought to Australia
by early British
settlers. It is atonic
and restorative
for the nerves
and digestion.

Kava (Piper
methysticum, p. 122)
forms an important
part of ceremonial
activities among the
peoples of Melanesia
and Polynesia. It is
taken for herbal
calming and urinary
infections, and is used
as a wash to treat
rheumatic pain.

. Kava root

Australia and

urn*-.

New Zealand

Regrettably, much of the herbal knowledge of the Australian
Aborigines was lost after the arrival of the Europeans. The
predominant strains of Australian herbalism today derive from
the West, China, and, increasingly, from other countries on the
Pacific Rim.

The cradle of the oldest continuous culture on earth, Australia is also
the home of an ancient herbal tradition. The Aborigines, believed to
have settled in Australia over 60,000 years ago, developed a sophisticated
empirical understanding of indigenous plants, many of which, such as
eucalyptus ( Eucalpytus globulus, p. 96), are unique to Australia. While
much of this knowledge has vanished with its keepers, there is currently
a high level of interest in native herbal traditions.

Aboriginal Herbal Medicine

The Aborigines probably had a more robust health than the early European
settlers who displaced them. They had very different ideas of health, disease,
and illness, in which the influence of the spirit world played a major role. In
common with other hunter-gatherer societies, the Aborigines devoted
much time to ritual, which reinforced the sense of place and purpose in the
lives of each individual. They used healing plants and the laying on of hands
in a complex weave of culture and medicine.

The influx of Europeans in the 18th century was disastrous for
the Aborigines. They were exploited and driven off the land, and their
population was decimated by killings and infectious Western diseases.

Not only did the Europeans fail to discern any value in native customs,
but much of the orally based herbal tradition was lost through death
of the elders and the dispersal of tribal groupings.

Nevertheless, a little is known of Aboriginal medicine. Aromatic herbs,
such as eucalpytus, were crushed and inhaled to treat many common
illnesses, including respiratory diseases such as flu. Without metal technology,
water could not be boiled, but decoctions were made by heating water
with hot stones. These were drunk or applied externally. Skin eruptions,
such as boils and scabies, were common and were treated with acacia
(Acacia spp., p. 158), while acute diarrhea was treated with eucalyptus or
kino ( Pterocarpus marsupium, p. 258). In Queensland, fever bark (Alstonia
spp., p. 165) was used to treat fevers.

Indigenous & Foreign Herbs

Over the past 200 years, many native Australian plants have become
popular around the world. Research into fever bark resulted in the
discovery of the alkaloid reserpine, which markedly lowers blood pressure.
The substance is now prescribed by herbalists and conventional practi¬
tioners alike. Eucalyptus and tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia, p. 112) yield
essential oils that are employed worldwide as antiseptics. Other native
Australian plants are now used in Australian herbalism because of their

46

Red river gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) has aromatic, astringent leaves. When it is taken internally,
generally to treat diarrhea, it turns the saliva red.

Gotu kola (Centella
asiatica, p. 76) is a
cleansing tonic for the
skin and digestion. It
also strengthens the
nervous system and
improves the memory.

Dried gotu kola

Fresh gotu
kola leaves

medicinal use elsewhere, for example gotu kola ( Centella asiatica, p. 76) and
visnaga ( Ammi visnaga, p. 62), which have a long history of medicinal use in
India and the Middle East. Early British settlers imported European medicinal
plants, such as vervain (Verbena officinalis, p. 149), hawthorn (Crataegus
oxycantha, p. 87), mullein (Verbascum thapsus, p. 281), and dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale, p. 141), which have now all become naturalized. Native
American plants have also found their way to Australia, including prickly
pear (Opuntia ficus-indica, p. 242) and Canadian fleabane (Conyza
canadensis, p. 194). As Australian herbalists generally follow the Anglo-
American herbal tradition, these plants are often employed in local practice.

Chinese Influence

Traditional Chinese medicine has substantially influenced herbalism in
Australia. Following the arrival of Chinese immigrants in the 19th century,
herbal formulas gained a reputation for effectiveness, and Chinese medicine
maintained a small but loyal following in all the major cities. During the 1980s,
a renaissance in all branches of herbal medicine began, and today Australia
has three colleges of traditional Chinese medicine. In 2012, traditional
Chinese medicine became a nationally regulated form of medicine, with
practitioners required to register with the Chinese Medicine Board of
Australia. Naturopathy and Western herbal medicine are yet to achieve
this status.

The Future

Gotu kola powder

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
globulus, p. 96) leaves
were traditionally used
by Aborigines to treat
fevers and infections.
Eucalyptus is a warming
and stimulant herb. As
well as being strongly
antiseptic, it is effective
in relieving colds,
coughs, and sore
throats.

Dried eucalyptus leaves

With the passing of enlightened legislation—-the Therapeutic Goods
Act—in 1989, herbal medicine became a dynamic growth industry in
Australia. This process is likely to continue as Australia and New Zealand
are due to harmonize their medicines legislation. Quality standards for
over-the-counter herbal medicines have been raised and many new herbal
products developed. There is increased commercial cultivation of medicinal
plants, notably tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia, p. I 12), and university training
and herbal research has been expanded. In this environment, Australians are
becoming increasingly sophisticated in their use of natural medicines.

With its ancient culture, ties to Western herbalism, and location on the
Pacific Rim, Australia is host to many herbal traditions. The next 20 years
will doubtless see further exciting developments.

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Dried, crushed
eucalyptus leaves

-A. ;

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

i

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

ijj

North America

Cornsilk (Zea mays,
p. 154) is a remedy
for problems affecting
the urinary system.

Many ancient herbal traditions in North and Central

America not only withstood the influx of European
settlers but helped to reinvigorate Western herbalism. In parts
of Central America herbal medicine is widely practiced, and in the
U.S. and Canada it is again enormously popular.

Slippery elm ( Ulmus
rubra, p. 145), soothes
the mucous membranes.

Stretching from the Arctic wilds of Canada and Alaska to the
tropical regions of Panama, North and Central America cover diverse
geographical regions and harbor an immense variety of medicinal plants.
Most of them are indigenous, but others—such as nutmeg, ginger, and

Saw palmetto
(Serenoa repens,
p. 136) has an
antiseptic effect
within the
urinary tract.

tamarind—were introduced from the Old World from the 16th century
onward. Likewise, native American medicinal plants—such as corn, cocoa,
cayenne, and sunflower—were introduced to Europe, Asia, and Africa.

This trade of species was an important part of the interplay between the

Old and New Worlds’ herbal traditions.

-Saw palmetto

tincture

Herbal Traditions in Central America

^ _Saw palmetto

dried fruit

Herbal medicine is commonly practiced in rural areas of Central America,
especially in Guatemala and Mexico. In the Mexican tradition, loss of
“balance” between hot and cold elements within the body is thought to
be the underlying cause of illness, and the healer’s art is to restore balance
and vitality.

Mexican herbal medicine is not a static tradition, but has evolved

^ _Prickly ash bark

from a shifting blend of Aztec, Mayan, and Spanish influences. Long
before Hernando Cortez and his conquistadors came ashore in 1519,
the Mayan and Aztec cultures had a well-developed understanding of

_Gravel root

(Eupatorium
purpureum, p. 209)
is a traditional

Native American
remedy for urinary
tract problems.

plant medicines. The 8 adianus Manuscript, the first American herbal
(written by an Aztec, Martin de la Cruz, in 1552), lists the medicinal
uses of 25 1 Mexican species. They include damiana ( Turnera diffusa,
p. 144), taken by the Maya as an aphrodisiac, and mesquite ( Prosopis
juliflora ), used by the Aztecs as an eye lotion. Both species are still used
medicinally, alongside European herbs such as pennyroyal ( Mentha
pulegium, p. 235) and thyme ( Thymus vulgaris, p. 143). It is thought that
approximately 65 percent of the plants used today by traditional

Prickly ash

(Zanthoxylum
americanum, p. 153)
is a warming remedy
that is used to treat
poor circulation.

Mexican herbalists originated in Europe.

In other Central American countries efforts are being made to
encourage people to use herbal medicine as the first line of treatment for
illness. Projects in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua, for example, are
teaching women howto use local herbs within their communities, while in

_Prickly ash berries

Cuba doctors routinely prescribe medicinal herbs to make up for the
scarcity of conventional medicines.

^_Prickly ash leaves

-

Caribbean Herbal Medicine

Throughout the Caribbean, domestic herbal medicine remains popular.
Some of the widely used herbs include fever grass or lemon grass
(Cymbopogon citratus, p. 198), which, as its name suggests, is used to treat

mgr .

fevers, and kerala ( Momordica charantia, p. 236), a creeping vine that is
prized as a “cure-all” on many of the islands. Kerala has been shown to

48

have an ability to lower blood-sugar levels and may help to slow down the

NORTH AMERICA

onset of diabetes, a relatively
common illness among Afro-
Caribbeans. The medical
and religious customs on
each Caribbean island vary,
but on many they reflect
the African traditions of
transported slaves, especially
of the Yoruba people
shipped from West Africa,
who carried on the practices
of their homelands. In some
of these traditions, herbs
are valued for their magical
power as well as for their
medicinal properties.

Tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum,
p. 240) for example, is
used for divination in many
American cultures, including
in Santeria and Voodoo religious rituals, as are other herbs, including garlic
(Allium sativum, p. 59) and cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, p. 74).

Shamanism

Moving north, Native American herbal medicine in what is now the
United States was and is primarily shamanistic in nature, involving herbal
lore, ritual, and magic. Shamanistic societies from Siberia to the Amazon
believe that, in serious illness, the soul of the sick person has been taken
over by malign forces. The shaman's role is to heal both the physical and
the spiritual dimension of the illness. The patient cannot be truly cured
until his or her soul has been freed from evil spirits. Shamanistic ceremonies
and rites to heal the sick person’s spirit include dancing, chanting, drumming,
playing games, and the stirring of ashes or sprinkling of water. By taking
hallucinogens such as peyote (Lophophora williamsii, p. 230), the shaman is
able to reach out to the spirit world and heal both the individual and the
community as a whole.

Power of Herbs

In all Native American cultures from Canada to Chile, herbs are thought
to have spiritual energy, and many of them are invested with great magical
power. The Iroquois believe that cardinal lobelia (Lobelia cardinalis, see
L. inflata, p. I 10) and morning glory (Ipomoea pandurata ) have the ability
to heal or harm, and should be picked, stored, and used with great care.
Morning glory is considered so powerful that even touching it could cause
harm. The Iroquois use the plant as a remedy for coughs, tuberculosis, and
other ailments, and also take it as a decoction with sunflower seeds
(Helianthus annuus ) as a sacrament in spring and autumn rituals.

Tobacco, now considered an addictive drug, was a sacred shamanistic
herb for most Native American peoples. It was smoked in pipes and
“thrown into fires as an offering, cast into the wind and water to abate
storms, scattered about a fish weir to improve the catch, and offered to
the air in thanksgiving for escape from danger,” according to Virgil Vogel's
American Indian Medicine ( 1970).

Wild yam (Dioscorea villosa,
p. 91) contains steroidal
saponins that have
a hormonal effect. It was
used to produce early
versions of the birth-
control pill.

Wild yam chopped rhizome

Wild yam rhizome

Lobelia tablets
(,Lobelia inflata, p. I 10)
help relax the small
muscles of the bronchial
tubes, easing asthma.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis
canadensis, p. 105)
was prized as a cure-all
in the 19th century.

Pokeweed

(Phytolacca americana,
p. 247) was used in
the 19th century
to induce vomiting.

Skullcap (Scutellaria
lateriflora, p. 135) is an
effective relaxant.

Cramp bark

(Viburnum opulus, p. 150)
is a sedative and muscle
relaxant, hence its
common name.

Pleurisy root

(.Asclepias tuberosa,
p. 173) was a popular
Native American
remedy for fever.

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V

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

Avocado fruit

Slippery elm

(Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
is a Native American
remedy for boils
and wounds.

California poppy

(.Eschscholzia californica,
p. 207) is a gentle,
effective sedative
that is often used
to encourage sleep.

Blue cohosh

(Caulophyllum
thalictroides,
p. 185) stimulates
the uterus. 50

Avocado leaf

Avocado bark

Avocado (Persea
americana, p. 121)
is an important
medicinal plant
in Guatemala,
where all the parts
are used as remedies.

Witch hazel bark

Witch hazel

(.Hamamelis
virginiana, p. 102)
is excellent for
skin conditions.

Witch hazel leaf

European Settlers

The first European settlers in North America, arriving in the early 17th
century, tended to dismiss Native American medical practices as nothing
more than primitive savagery. The settlers relied largely on imported
herbal medicines, or on European plants hardy enough to grow in eastern
North America.

As time went by, however, the settlers’ increased contact with indigenous
peoples in the frontier regions fostered a healthy respect for their healing
skills. Sometimes settlers adopted not just the plants but the harvesting and
therapeutic methods as well. Joseph Doddridge, in Notes on the Settlement
and Indian Wars (1876), relates that butternut bark (Juglans cinerea, p. 224)
was peeled downward if it was to be used as a purgative (acting
“downward” by purging the bowels), and upward for use as an emetic
(acting “upward” by provoking vomiting).

The types of healing regimens practiced by Native Americans
eventually gained widespread popularity. Toward the end of the 18th
century, Samuel Thomson (1769-1843) developed a simple therapeutic
regimen based on Native American herbal practice. Thomson never
acknowledged the debt, but it is clearly evident—from the use of emetics,
purgatives, and stimulants, to the central role of sweating and vapor baths
(based in part on Native American sweat lodges), to the deep knowledge
of American medicinal plants. Thomson considered that “all disease is
caused by cold” and his system worked well for those with a robust health
struck down by infection or injury. The two main herbs in his system—
cayenne, a stimulating herb, and lobelia, an emetic, relaxant, and
stimulant—act to raise body temperature and dilate the blood vessels.
Taking these plants helps to increase resistance to infection and speeds the
healing of wounds.

Eclecticism & Its Influence

The fertile marriage between Native American and Western herbal
medicine led to the establishment of more sophisticated herbal systems,
such as Eclecticism, founded by Dr. Wooster Beech (1794-1868) in the
I 830s. Beech studied both herbal and conventional medicine and tried
to combine the new scientific knowledge of
physiology and pathology with the best of the
herbal tradition. Beech rejected Thomson’s
theories as being overly simplistic, and aimed
to use the lowest dosages possible to achieve
good results. His approach was so successful
that at Eclecticism's height in 1909, over
8,000 members were in practice, all
with recognized medical qualifications.
Another significant medical movement,
inspired by Thomson’s regimen and
influenced by the Eclectics, was
Physiomedicalism. Using many
herbs, these practitioners sought

Samuel Thomson, who Inspired
the 19th-century Physiomedicalists,
advocated Native American remedies.

NORTH AMERICA

to harmonize “the organic
tissues with the vital force,” with
the aim of restoring equilibrium
within the body. Believing the
stomach was the source of
disease, Physiomedicalists used
herbs that induced vomiting,
such as pokeweed ( Phytolacca
americana, p. 247), to cleanse
the organ. Other herbs, such
as echinacea ( Echinacea spp.,
p. 92), now recognized as an
effective immune modulator,
and goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis, p. 105), atonic and anti-inflammatory,
were then prescribed to aid recovery.

The second half of the 19th century was an extraordinary time for
American natural medicine. In addition to engendering osteopathy and
chiropractic at the turn of the century, it also reinvigorated herbal
medicine in Britain to such a degree that Physiomedicalism became an
Anglo-American herbal tradition. To this day, British herbalists still use
a far wider variety of North American medicinal herbs than do their
European counterparts.

Wild yam is found growing in Mexico. Its rhizome relaxes
smooth muscle and it is used as an antispasmodic.

North American Herbal Medicine Today

In the U.S., herbal medicine went into steep decline after 1907 because
of the government's decision to limit financial support for herbal medical
training at conventional medical schools. Since that time, herbal medicine
in both the U.S. and Canada has existed mostly on the fringes of
conventional health care. In some U.S. states, it is illegal to practice herbal
medicine without medical qualifications, but courses in herbalism are not
offered at medical schools.

With the passing of liberal legislation in 1994, use of herbal medicine
in the U.S. exploded and sales of St. John’s wort ( Hypericum perforatum,
p. 106)—-the most extreme example—are thought to have increased
by 3,900 percent between 1995 and 1997. Such growth could not be
sustained, and led to lower-quality herbal products being sold over the
counter. The American Botanical Council has been at the forefront of the
campaign to raise quality standards of herbal medicines, and many bona
fide herbal manufacturers have signed up to their Botanical Adulterants
program. At the same time, greater resources are being put into
researching herbal medicines, for example through the U.S. National Center
for Complementary and Integrative Health, which
has so far funded over 15 clinical trials into herbs
such as garlic ( Allium sativum, p. 59) and saw
palmetto (Serenoa repens, p. 136).

Over the past 20 years, North Americans have
become increasingly savvy about herbal medicines
and their role in maintaining well-being and
treating ill health. Best-selling herbs include
turmeric ( Curcuma longa, p. 90) and
elderberry ( Sambucus nigra, p. 132), and
their use fits well with the American
tradition of self-reliance. Turmeric

Damiana (Turnera
diffusa, p. 144)
eases depression.

Cayenne (Capsicum
frutescens, p. 74) is
a potent warming
herb that stimulates
circulation
and digestion.

Evening primrose

(Oenothera biennis,
p. 241) yields a
seed oil containing
essential fatty acids
that help maintain
healthy tissues.

Black cohosh

(Cimicifuga racemosa,
p. 79) was used by
Native Americans to
treat rheumatism.

Helonias

(Chamaelirium luteum,
p. 186) was chewed by
Native American women
to prevent miscarriage.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE

South America

f

Cinchona (Cinchona
spp., p. 80) contains
quinine, which
is a powerful
anti malarial.

Nasturtium

('Tropaeolum majus,
p. 278) is a traditional
Andean remedy for
wounds and chest
infections. It is
strongly antibiotic.

Arrowroot

(Maranta
orundinacea,
p. 233) is used to
treat diarrhea and
skin conditions, and
to heal wounds.

Lemon verbena

(Lippia citriodora,
p. 228) has sedative
qualities and is taken
as a calming infusion.

Fresh lemon
verbena leaves

Herbal medicine is a part of the struggle for survival
for the indigenous peoples of South America, as they
seek to protect their culture and natural habitats. As
the great rainforests disappear we are losing thousands of plant
species, some of which may have had great medicinal value.

Herbal medicine in South America conjures up images of shamanistic
rituals and a collection of thousands of as yet unclassified plants under
the thick canopy of the rainforest. But these are only two facets of the
continent’s herbal tradition—those of the Amazon and Orinoco regions.
Distinctly different plants and practices are found in other areas, for
example on the Bolivian Andes plateau, on the humid plains of Paraguay,
and in cities such as Rio de Janeiro.

Wealth of Native Plants

Ever since the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century, European
writers have remarked on the huge variety of plant medicines used by
native peoples. The most important of these was cinchona ( Cinchona
spp., p. 80), a traditional Andean fever remedy, which the Spaniards first
discovered around 1630. Quinine, produced from this plant, became the
most effective treatment for malaria for nearly 300 years and is still widely
used as atonic, bitter, and muscle relaxant. Other important plants
originating in South America include the potato (Solatium tuberosum,
p. 271), which was cultivated in over 60 different varieties by the Inca. Its
uses are wide-ranging, but it is particularly effective as a poultice for skin
conditions. Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha, p. 186)—now commonly found
in over-the-counter cough preparations—was taken by Brazilian native
peoples to treat amebic dysentery. Mate (Ilex paraguariensis, p. 222), which
grows in southern regions of the continent, makes a stimulating beverage
that is prepared and drunk like tea. Mate has become so popular it is now
cultivated in Spain and Portugal as well as in South America.

Since the 1950s, specialist ethnobotanists have lived within native
communities, particularly in the Amazon region, where most tribes have
a highly developed herbal lore. Their work has resulted in a wealth of
knowledge about Amazonian species. Pareira (Chondrodendron tomentosum,
p. 189), a climbing vine of the rainforest, for example, yields the poison
curare used in hunting, and is taken medicinally to treat water
retention, bruising, and insanity. Sadly, however, the herbal
medicine of many indigenous groups is now under threat as the
rainforests, and their culture, disappear.

Mind-altering Remedies

Notorious in the West as the source of cocaine,
coca (Erythroxylum coca, p. 206) is an important
medicine in South America for nausea and
vomiting, toothache, and asthma. It is also
completely interwoven into the culture of
indigenous Amazonian and Andean peoples
and serves as a precise example of the unique

SOUTH AMERICA

Coca harvest in Bolivia. The leaves are picked when they begin to curl. They have been used as a stimulant for
centuries by the indigenous peoples of the Andes.

relationship that traditional peoples have with the plant world. Many
different myths confirm coca's sacred and ancient origins in South America,
and great ritual and significance is attached to the leaves, which, when mixed
with lime and chewed, reduce appetite and increase endurance.

Many hallucinogenic plants are used within South American shamanistic
societies, notably ayahuasca (8 anisteriopsis caapi, p. 176). This powerful
“medicine” enables the shaman (priest) to communicate with the spirit
world and cure the patient’s ill health.

The European Influence

In more westernized areas of South America, herbal medicine is often
a blend of both Spanish and local traditions (as is also the case in Central
America, see p. 48). Large herb markets exist in some cities, such as La
Paz and Quito, which provide an astonishing variety of indigenous and
European herbs. In Ecuadorian markets, for example, anise ( Pimpinella
anisum, p. 248), a digestive remedy for colic and cramps that originally came
from the Mediterranean, is sold alongside unusual native medicines such as
arquitecta ( Culcitium reflexum), a diuretic and detoxifying herb traditionally
used to treat toxicity and infections, including syphilis.

Research & New Hopes

Research into native herbs has led to the use of certain plants in
conventional medicine. Brazilian investigation into pau d’arco ( Tabebuia
impetiginosa, p. 139) indicates significant therapeutic potential for fungal
infections, inflammation of the cervix, HIV, and cancer. While pau d’arco’s
effectiveness in treating cancer is controversial, it is currently prescribed
both by local doctors and in hospitals.

Research into herbal medicine is expanding, with hospital-based
studies taking place in centers such as Belem in northeastern Brazil
and Bogota in Colombia. Such studies are important for the world as
a whole. The locally based researchers, unlike most multinational drug
companies, are willing to develop medicines based on simple extracts,
which may ultimately prove more effective than the isolated constituents
often used in conventional drugs.

i tr

Pau d’arco (Tabebuia
spp., p. 139) is used as
an anticancer remedy.
It has long been
used by indigenous
Peruvian peoples
to lower fever and
reduce inflammation.

Pau d’arco tincture

Guarana (Paullinia
cupana, p. 245)
contains a natural
stimulant with
properties similar
to caffeine. Roasted
and ground guarana
seeds are now widely
used in the health
food industry.

Soap bark (Quillaja
saponaria, p. 260)
is a traditional
expectorant in
Peru and Chile.

Pineapple (Ananas
comosus, p. 167) is
rich in vitamin C, and
contains an enzyme
that aids digestion. The
juice is employed as
a digestive tonic
and a diuretic.

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KEY MEDICINAL

PLANTS

Of the estimated 500,000 plants on our planet, it is thought that around 10,000 are used
regularly for medicinal purposes. The index of Key Medicinal Plants features 100 of the
best-known medicinal plants in Latin name order. Many are commonly available and widely
used in different herbal traditions around the world, for example German chamomile
(Chamomilla recutita, p. 77) and ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155). Others, such as neem
(Azadirachta indica, p. 70), from Asia, are key herbs within their native region. A significant
proportion of these herbs have been well researched and most are excellent for home use.

PLANT NAMES

The Latin name given is the one by which the plant is most
generally known in medical herbalism. If the plant has a
Latin synonym, this is provided. The first part of the Latin
name designates the plant’s genus (sub-family). The second
part specifies the species name. In brackets after the Latin
name(s) comes the plant’s family name, the broader class
to which the genus belongs. The plant’s common name(s)
are beneath the family name. If more than one common
name is in popular use, they are listed in order of
importance. Where appropriate, the origins of common
names are given in brackets.

HABITAT & CULTIVATION

Gives information on where the plant is indigenous, its
current distribution, how it is cultivated and harvested,
and any preferred growing conditions.

RELATED SPECIES

Provides cross-references and information on related
species that are used medicinally or are well known.

KEY CONSTITUENTS & KEY ACTIONS

Lists the key active constituents and the key medicinal
actions of the plant on the body in order of importance.
Note For more information on plant constituents and
their actions, see pp. 10-16.

RESEARCH

Provides details of scientific research conducted into
the plant, its constituents, and its extracts, including
results of any clinical trials. If appropriate, includes herbal
practitioners’ observations of the plant’s known actions
and potential new medicinal uses for the herb.

TRADITIONAL & CURRENT USES

Reveals how the plant was used medicinally in the past
and how it is used today in different herbal traditions.
Examines differences between traditional and current

uses, and shows how scientific research is sometimes
confirming the validity of the traditional use and
sometimes uncovering completely new applications for
the herb. Note See Glossary p. 321 for unfamiliar terms.

PARTS USED

Illustrates the parts of the plant used medicinally.

KEY PREPARATIONS & THEIR USES

Features key preparations with details of how they are
taken or applied. Gives cautions about using the herb as a
medicine and about the plant in general. States if the plant,
its constituents, or its extracts are legally restricted.

Note: A self-help use is provided for many preparations.
Before attempting any self-help use, it is essential to read
the cautions and the information on pp. 290 & 298-299.

CAUTIONS

Gives cautions about using the herb medicinally and about
the plant in general. States if the plant, its constituents, or
its extracts are legally restricted.

O Considered safe as a medicine but potentially harmful
if used inappropriately. Particular safety issues are listed.
Where a plant is listed as "Take only under professional
supervisionit is not suitable for home use.

©Known to be toxic or unsafe as a medicine. Do not self-
medicate with these plants. Some plants with this symbol
may be safely prescribed by experienced healthcare
practitioners within a very narrow dosage range. At a
higher dose , such plants will be poisonous.

SELF-HELP USES

Cross-refers to self-help treatments in Remedies for
Common Ailments. Note: Always read the cautions in Key
Preparations & Their Uses and the information on pp. 290
& 298-299 before using any herb.

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KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM

Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae)

Yarrow, Milfoil

Yarrow is a native European plant, with a long history
as a wound healer. In classical times, it was known as
herba militaris, being used to staunch war wounds. It has
long been taken as a strengthening bitter tonic, and all
kinds of bitter drinks have been made from it. Yarrow
helps recovery from colds and flu and is beneficial for
hay fever. It is also helpful for menstrual problems and
circulatory disorders.

Yarrow was once known as " nosebleed”
because its leaves were used to
staunch blood.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Europe and western Asia,
yarrow can be found growing wild
in temperate regions throughout the
world, in meadows and along
roadsides. The herb spreads via its
roots, and the aerial parts are picked
in summer when in flower.

■ Stops internal bleeding

■ Promotes menstruation

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

Despite its many uses and similarity
to German chamomile (Chamomillo
recutita, p. 77), yarrow has been
poorly researched. The herb and its
volatile oil have been shown to be
anti-inflammatory; the azulenes are
also antiallergenic. The sesquiterpene
lactones are bitter and have
antitumor activity. Achilleine and the
flavonoids help arrest internal and
external bleeding; the flavonoids
may be responsible for yarrow’s
antispasmodic action. Laboratory
studies indicate that yarrow dilates
blood vessels, thereby lowering
blood pressure. It works, in part,
like conventional medicines known as
ACE inhibitors, which are commonly
prescribed for high blood pressure.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil with variable
content (linalool, camphor,
sabinene, azulene)

■ Sesquiterpene lactones

■ Flavonoids

■ Alkaloids (achilleine)

■ Triterpenes

■ Phytosterols

■ Tannins

56

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Astringent

■ Bitter tonic

■ Increases sweating

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Reduces fever

■ Mild diuretic and urinary antiseptic

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Healing wounds Achilles
reputedly used yarrowto heal wounds,
hence its botanical name. It has been
used for this purpose for centuries, and
in Scotland a traditional wound
ointment was made from yarrow.

■ Gynecological herb Yarrow
helps regulate the menstrual cycle,
reduces heavy menstrual bleeding,
and eases period pain.

■ Other uses Combined with
other herbs, yarrow helps colds and
flu. Its bitter tonic properties make it
useful for weak digestion and colic.

It also helps hay fever, lowers high
blood pressure, improves venous
circulation, and tones varicose veins.

Yarrow

A creeping perennial,
growing to 3 ft (I m),
with white flower
heads and finely
divided leaves.

E9 Parts Used

Aerial parts contain
flavonoids, which are
thought to give yarrow its
antispasmodic properties.

Flowers contain
volatile oil

Dried aerial parts

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions May cause allergic reaction in rare cases. Use the essential
oil only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Peppermint

ii _Elderflower

Yarrow

Remedy For colds, mix equal
parts of yarrow, peppermint,
and elderflower. Infuse I tsp
with % cup (150 ml) water
for 10 minutes (see p. 29 I).
Take 3 times a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For indigestion, take
20 drops 3 times a day.

Essential oil extracted
from the flowers is
used by herbalists
to treat congestion.

Poultice (to make, p. 295). Apply to grazes, cuts, and bruises.

Self-help Uses I ■ Digestive infections, p. 305.

■ Cleansing wounds, p. 304. ■ Fever, p. 3 I I.

■ Colds & flu, p. 3 I I. la Varicose veins, p. 302.

A C 0 R U S CALAMUS

Acorus calamus (Araceae)

Sweet Flag, Calamus, Bacc (Hindi)

Sweet flag has a long-standing reputation as atonic
and stimulant. An important herb in Ayurvedic
medicine, it is also widely used in Europe and the U.S.
The rhizome is a valuable remedy for digestion,
and is a tonic for the nervous system. It stimulates the
appetite and soothes digestion, relieving gas and calming
indigestion and colic. Sweet flag has a strongly aromatic,
bitter taste.

in marshy places. Propagation is carried
out in autumn or early spring by
dividing the clumps of rhizomes and
replanting them in shallow water The
rhizomes are harvested as needed.

Related Species

A. gramineus (shi chang pu ) is a
Chinese herb and a close relative
that is used medicinally for much
the same range of conditions as
A. calamus.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil—sesquiterpenes
(A. calamus var. americanus
only); asarone (except

A. calamus var. americanus )

■ Saponins

■ Bitter principle (acorin)

Sweet flag is an aquatic plant, similar in
appearance to the iris. It has yellow flowers
in summer.

Habitat & Cultivation

Sweet flag, believed to originate from
India, now grows in many parts of the
world. It prefers wet soil and is found

Fresh rhizome

Key Actions

■ Carminative

■ Relieves muscle spasm

■ Antioxidant

■ Anti-inflammatory
Tonic

Research

■ Beta-asarone Research attention
has focused on the constituent beta-
asarone in the volatile oil, which has

a carcinogenic action when isolated.
The American variety of sweet
flag (A. calamus var. americanus ),
commonly available in Europe, does
not contain beta-asarone, and only
preparations made from this should
be used.

Whole herb In India, sweet
flag powder has been taken for
thousands of years with no reports
of cancer arising from its use.

This suggests that use of the
whole herb may be safe, but
more research is needed.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Early uses Sweet flag has been
regarded as an aphrodisiac in India

/ and Egypt for at least 2,500 years.

In Europe, it was valued as a

Sweet flag

An herbaceous, aquatic
reedlike plant with tall,
sword-shaped leaves.

It grows to 3 ft (I m).

stimulant, bitter herb for the appetite
(if not for the appetites) and as
an aid to digestion. In North
America, the decoction was used for
fevers, stomach cramps, and colic; the
rhizome was chewed for toothache,
and powdered rhizome was inhaled
for congestion.

■ Ayurvedic medicine Sweet
flag is an important herb in
Ayurvedic medicine, and is valued
as a “rejuvenator” for the brain and
nervous system, and as a remedy
for digestive disorders.

■ Western herbalism In Western
herbal medicine, the herb is chiefly
used for digestive problems such

as bloating, gas, colic, and poor
digestive function. Sweet flag,
particularly A. calamus var.
americanus, which is the most
effective antispasmodic, relieves
spasm of the intestines. It helps
uncomfortable and distended
stomachs, and headaches associated
with weak digestion. Small amounts
are thought to reduce stomach
acidity, while larger doses increase
deficient acid production—a good
example of how different doses
of the same herb can produce
different results.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

©Cautions Take only under professional supervision. Do not
take for more than I month. Restricted in some countries.

i)

Decoction is given to relieve
indigestion and gas and to
increase appetite.

Tincture is prescribed
by herbalists and doctors
for digestive ailments.

Powder is taken
as atonic in
Ayurvedic medicine.

57

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

AESCULUS HIPP0CASTANUM

58

Aesculus hippocastanum (Sapindaceae)

Horse Chestnut

Horse chestnut

A deciduous tree with
divided leaves, white
and pink flowers, and
spiny green fruit. It
grows to 80 ft (25 m).

Extracts of horse chestnut seed—the shiny brown
“conkers” collected by British children in autumn—have
a scientifically established ability to relieve the symptoms
of varicose veins, and promote their repair. Taken by
mouth, or applied as a lotion, horse chestnut will help
to tighten up the tissues and reduce the pain and
swelling of varicose veins. It is also useful in helping
to reduce fluid retention.

Horse chestnut seeds are the main herbal
medicine for venous disorders.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to mountain woods from the
Balkans through western Asia to
the Himalayas, horse chestnut is now
cultivated as an ornamental and shade
tree in temperate regions around
the world, especially in northern and
western Europe. It is propagated
from seed in autumn or spring. Leaves
are harvested in summer, the bark
and seeds in autumn.

Related Species

Do not use Ohio Buckeye (A. glabra)
as it is toxic if taken internally.

Key Constituents

■ Triterpenoid saponins, including
about 5% aescin, a complex
mixture of glycosides

■ Polysaccharides (about 50%)

■ Coumarins, including aesculin

■ Flavonoids

■ Tannins, including proanthocyanidins

■ Fixed oil (2-3%)

Key Actions

■ Venous tonic

■ Astringent

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antioxidant

■ Reduces fluid retention

Research

■ Clinical trials Numerous trials
have confirmed horse chestnut’s value
as a medicine in venous problems
such as varicose veins, venous ulcers,
hemorrhoids, and frostbite. In one
London-based study, published in

1996, horsechestnut extract was
shown to be as effective in treating
varicose veins as compression
stockings. In Germany, horse chestnut
extracts and aescin are now routinely
used to treat varicose veins.

■ Venous insufficiency A 2006
review of clinical trials by the
Cochrane Database assessed the use
of horse chestnut extract for chronic
venous insufficiency—a condition
that includes leg swelling and spider
and varicose veins. The review con¬
cluded that horse chestnut extract
was a safe and effective short-term
treatment for this problem.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Circulatory system Although
horse chestnut has a beneficial
effect on the heart and arteries, it
is primarily a remedy for the veins.

It helps improve the tone of the
vein walls, which when slack or
distended result in varicose veins,
piles, and similar problems. It also
reduces edema (fluid retention)
caused by fluid leaking from
distended veins, and increases the
permeability of the capillaries,
allowing excess fluid to drain back
into the circulatory system. Horse

0 Parts Used

Leaves can be used to make a lotion
for varicose veins and hemorrhoids.

Seeds are an excellent
remedy for varicose veins
and associated fluid retention,

Bark is much
more astringent
than the seeds.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Cautions Best taken with professional advice. Horse chestnut can cause gastro¬
intestinal upset at normal dosage (discontinue if symptoms develop) and is toxic at
excess dosage. Not suitable for children. Do not apply to broken or ulcerated skin.
May interact with blood-thinning drugs.

Tablets may have a higher aescin
content than other preparations.

Capsules are convenient for long-term use.

Lotion (to make, p. 296). Apply
twice daily to varicose veins.

chestnut is taken internally for leg
ulcers, varicose veins, piles, and
frostbite, and applied locally as a
lotion, gel, or ointment. A decoction
of the bark or leaf can be used as an
astringent lotion for varicose veins.

■ Rheumatism In Lrance, an oil
extracted from the seeds has

been used as a topical application
for rheumatism.

■ Chest remedy Horse chestnut
makes a serviceable chest remedy and
in Turkey has been used to treat chest
complaints in horses. In the U.S. a
decoction of the leaves has been
considered useful for whooping cough.

ALLIUM SATIVUM

Allium sativum (Liliaceae)

Garlic

Known for its pungent odor and taste, garlic is an
ideal herbal medicine, being completely safe for home
use and a powerful treatment for a host of health
problems. It counters many infections, including those
of the nose, throat, and chest. It also reduces cholesterol,
helps circulatory disorders, such as high blood pressure,
and lowers blood-sugar levels, making it a useful dietary
addition in type 2 diabetes.

Garlic is widely cultivated commercially
for use in cooking.

Habitat & Cultivation

Originally from central Asia, garlic
is now grown worldwide. It is grown
by dividing the bulb and is harvested
late the following summer.

Related Species

Onion and ramsons (A. cepo and
A. ursinum, p. 164) are both
important medicinal herbs.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (alliin, alliinase, allicin)

■ Scordinins

■ Selenium

■ Vitamins A, B, C, and E

Key Actions

■ Antibiotic

■ Expectorant

■ Increases sweating

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Reduces blood clotting

■ Anti-diabetic

■ Expels worms

Research

■ Invaluable remedy Well over
1,000 research papers have been

published on the medicinal effects
of garlic. They show that it helps to
lower raised blood fat levels, including
cholesterol, to keep the blood thin
and protect against blood clots, to
lower raised blood pressure, to lower
raised blood-sugar levels, and to have
antibiotic activity.

■ Unknown action While it is
understood that when the fresh
clove is crushed, alliin is broken down
by alliinase into allicin (which has
strong antiseptic activity), authorities
still disagree on precisely how
garlic achieves its medicinal effects.
Nevertheless, research indicates that
it is best to crush garlic cloves, and
then to wait 10 minutes before using
it in food or as medicine. This allows
sufficient time for allicin to form.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional remedy Garlic has
always been esteemed for its healing
powers, and before the development
of antibiotics it was a treatment for all
manner of infections, from tuberculosis
to typhoid. It was also used to dress
wounds in World War I.

■ Bronchial infections Garlic is
an excellent remedy for all types of
chest infections. It is good for colds,
flu, and ear infections, and it helps
to reduce mucus.

■ Digestive tract Digestive
infections respond well to garlic.

The herb can also rid the body of
intestinal parasites.

■ Circulatory remedy Garlic
prevents circulatory problems and
strokes by keeping the blood thin.

It lowers cholesterol levels and
blood pressure.

Garlic

A bulbous perennial
growing to 1-3 ft
(30 cm-1 m), with
pale pink or green-
white flowers.

ES Parts Used

Garlic whole, chopped, or crushed, has
been used as a medicine and as atonic

food for thousands of years.

Bulb

Cloves contain volatile
oil, which is antiseptic
and antibiotic

Fresh

plant

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Caution Consult a professional practitioner before giving garlic as a medicine to
children under 12. Take on professional advice if taking blood-thinning medication.

^ ^ ^

7 V J '■^*7

Pearls contain garlic oil. Take to
increase resistance to infections.

f

Chopped cloves Use

regularly in cooking to
help reduce cholesterol
levels and boost the
immune system.

Garlic syrup

(to make, p. 293).
For coughs, take
I tsp every 3 hours.

Capsules (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis, take 2 x 100 mg capsules 3 times a day.
Tablets Take for high blood pressure and bronchitis.

■ Other uses Garlic has been
used to treat diverse health problems,
from hay fever and asthma to an
enlarged prostate and osteoarthritis.

It is useful when taken alongside
conventional antibiotics to help
prevent side-effects such as diarrhea.
Strongly antifungal, garlic can be an
effective treatment in fungal skin
conditions, taken internally and
applied to the skin. It has anti-cancer
activity and helps to protect against
stomach and colon cancer.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304.

■ Colds & flu, p. 3 I I .

■ Cold sores, p. 304.

■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 3 10.

■ Digestive infections, p. 305.

■ Earache, p. 3 12.

■ Fungal infections, p. 3 14.

■ High blood pressure, p. 301.

■ Old age tonic, p. 3 19.

■ Tonsillitis, p. 3 I I .

■ Urinary infections, p. 3 14.

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t KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

60

ALOE VERA

Aloe vera syn. A. barbadensis (Xanthorrhoeaceae)

Aloe Vera, Aloes

Aloe vera

A perennial with
succulent leaves
2 ft (60 cm) long
and a spike of yellow
or orange flowers.

Native to Africa, aloe vera is commonly cultivated
as a potted plant and has two distinct types of medicinal
use. The clear gel contained in the leaf is a remarkably
effective healer of wounds and burns, speeding up
the rate of healing and reducing the risk of infection.

The yellow sap from the base
is known as “bitter aloes’’ It is
for short-term constipation.

Aloe vera has prickly, gray-green,
succulent leaves that yield effective
medicinal substances.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to eastern and southern Africa,
aloe vera grows wild in the tropics and
is cultivated extensively worldwide.
(Aloe vera plants grown as potted
plants have a low anthraquinone
content.) Aloe vera is propagated by
breaking off small rooted plantlets.

To collect the gel and bitter liquid,
the leaves are cut and drained.

Related Species

Cape aloes (A. ferox) is used in
herbal medicine as an irritant
laxative. Many other Aloe species
are also useful medicinally.

Key Constituents

■ Anthraquinones (aloin,
aloe-emodin)

■ Resins

■ Tannins

■ Polysaccharides

■ Aloectin B

Key Actions

■ Heals wounds

■ Emollient

of the leaf when dried
a strong laxative, useful

■ Stimulates secretions of bile

■ Laxative

Research

■ Healing properties Extensive
research since the 1930s in the U.S.
and Russia has shown that the clear
gel has a dramatic ability to heal
wounds, ulcers, and burns, putting a
protective coat on the affected area
and speeding up the rate of healing.
This action is in part due to the
presence of aloectin B, which
stimulates the immune system.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Beauty treatment Aloe vera
has a long history as a skin lotion—
Cleopatra is said to have attributed
her beauty to it.

■ Western remedy In the West,
aloe vera first became popular in
the 1950s when its ability to heal
burns, in particular radiation burns,
was discovered.

■ First aid Aloe vera is an excellent
first aid remedy for burns, scrapes,
scalds, and sunburn. A leaf, broken
off, releases soothing gel, which may
be applied to the affected part.

■ Skin conditions The gel is useful
for almost any skin condition that
needs soothing and astringing, and will
help varicose veins to some degree.

■ Ulcers The protective and healing
effect of aloe vera also works
internally, and the gel can be used
for peptic ulcers and irritable
bowel syndrome.

■ Laxative The bitter yellow liquid
in the leaves (bitter aloes) contains
anthraquinones, which are strongly
laxative. They cause the colon

S3 Parts Used

Leaves exude a bitter
liquid, which is dried and
known as “bitter aloes.” They
also contain a clear gel, which
is a soothing skin remedy.

Chopped leaves

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Cautions Do not use the bitter yellow juice from
the base of the leaves (bitter aloes) on the skin. Its
use is restricted in some countries. Do not take internally
during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Do not take
if suffering from hemorrhoids or kidney disease.

Bitter aloes are

used by herbalists
to treat constipation.

Leaves are broken
off and the clear
gel is applied to the
skin as a first aid
remedy for burns

Juice is made commercially from
the gel. For peptic ulcers,
take 2Zi tbsp 3 times a day.

Leaves Break off a leaf and split open
to collect the gel. For burns and
eczema, apply liberally twice a day.

Tincture made from bitter aloes (see p. 292). To stimulate the appetite,
take 3 drops with water before meals.

to contract, generally producing a
bowel movement 8-12 hours after
consumption. At low doses, the bitter
properties of the herb stimulate
digestion. At higher doses, bitter aloes
are laxative and purgative.

Self-help Uses

■ Minor burns & sunburn, p. 303.

■ Stretch marks, p. 3 17.

■ Warts, p. 304.

■ Weeping skin, p. 303.

■ Wounds, p. 304.

A L P I N I A 0 F F I C I N A R U M

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Galangal (Hindi), Gao Liang Jiang (Chinese)

Like other members of the ginger family, galangal
is warming and comforting to the digestion. It has a
pleasantly aromatic and mildly spicy taste, and is suitable
for all conditions where the central areas of the body
need greater warmth. It was introduced into Europe in
about the 9th century. The German mystic Hildegard of
Bingen regarded it literally as the “spice of life,” given by
God to ward off ill-health.

Galangal is an important spice in Thai
cooking and is reportedly fed to Arabian
horses to ‘fire them up” in parts of Asia.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to grassland areas of southern
China, and Southeast Asia in general,
galangal is now cultivated as a spice
and as a medicine throughout much
of tropical Asia. It is propagated by
dividing and replanting the rhizomes in
spring, and it requires well-drained soil
and a shady position. The rhizomes are
harvested from 4- to 6-year-old plants
at the end of the growing season and
may be used fresh or dried.

Related Species

Greater galangal, also known as
Siamese ginger (A. galanga ), though a
close relative of galangal, has a much
inferior taste and volatile oil content.
It appears to have an antiulcer action.
Two other Alpinia species, cao dou
cou (A. katsumadai) and yi zhi ren
(A. oxyphylla), are used in a broadly
similar way to galangal in traditional
Chinese medicine.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (about 1%) containing
alpha-pinene, cineole, linalool

■ Sesquiterpene lactones
(galangol, galangin)

■ Diterpenes

■ Flavonoids

Key Actions

■ Warming digestive tonic

■ Carminative

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Anti-emetic

■ Antibacterial

■ Antifungal

■ Antitumor

Research

■ Antibacterial Research indicates
that galangal has antibacterial activity,
notably against Staphylococcus aureus,
responsible for many ear, nose, and
throat infections.

■ Antifungal Galangal has shown
pronounced activity against fungi
in laboratory research, especially
against Candida albicans.

■ Osteoarthritis A 2001 clinical
trial found that a concentrated extract
of ginger (Zingiber officinalis, p. 155)
and galangal was effective in relieving
osteoarthritis symptoms in the knee.

Traditional &

Current Uses
Chinese medicine In traditional
Chinese herbal medicine, galangal is
a warming herb used for abdominal
pain, vomiting, and hiccups, as well as
for diarrhea due to internal cold.
When used for hiccups, it is combined
with codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula,
p. 83) and fu ling (Poria cocos).

■ Indian tradition In India
and southwestern Asia, galangal
is considered stomachic, anti¬
inflammatory, expectorant, and

Galangal

A perennial aromatic
plant growing to GVi ft
(2 m), with white, red¬
lipped flowers and
lance-shaped leaves.

Parts Used

Rhizome has a warming,
stimulating action and is
useful for a wide range
of digestive problems.

Rhizomes have a

Fresh rhizome

Dried rhizome

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Chopping root for a decoction

(to make, p. 291). For motion
sickness, slowly sip up to
% cup (150 ml).

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is suitable for
long-term use. To improve digestion,
take 20 drops diluted with ^4 cup
(100 ml) hot water 3 times a day.

Powder For nausea, take
a 250 mg capsule (to make,
p. 292) twice a day.

a nervine tonic. It is used in the
treatment of hiccups, dyspepsia,
stomach pain, rheumatoid arthritis,
and intermittent fever.

■ Western herbalism Galangal
was introduced into Europe by
Arabian physicians over 1,000 years
ago. It is mainly used in the West
for gas, indigestion, vomiting, and
stomach pain. An infusion can be
used to alleviate mouth ulcers and
sore gums. Galangal has long been
recommended as a treatment for
seasickness, which is not surprising

given the well-established ability of
its relative, ginger (Zingiber officinale,
p. 155) to relieve motion sickness.

■ Candidiasis Galangal can be used
with other antifungal herbs as part of a
regimen to treat intestinal candidiasis.

■ Dosage At a moderate dosage,
galangal is a warming and gently
stimulating herb for a weakened
digestive system, but at a higher
dosage it can be an irritant.

Self-help Use

■ Nausea & motion sickness, p. 306.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

62

A M M\ V I S N AG A

Ammi visnaga syn. Doucus visnaga (Apiaceae)

Visnaga, Kheiia

Visnaga

An erect annual
growing to 3 ft (I m),
with leaves divided into
wisps and clusters of
small white flowers.

Visnaga, with its aromatic, bitter scent and flavor, has
greater medicinal than culinary value. It is an effective
muscle relaxant and has been used for many centuries
to alleviate the excruciating pain of kidney stones. Scientific
research has confirmed the validity of this traditional
use. Visnaga contains khellin, from which particularly
safe pharmaceutical drugs for the treatment of asthma
have been derived.

Visnaga is a member of the carrot family and
has the characteristic delicate, wispy leaves.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to North Africa, visnaga grows
wild in the Middle East and around
the Mediterranean. It is naturalized in
Australia and South America. Grown
from seed, visnaga is widely cultivated.
The tiny fruits containing the seeds are
picked in late summer before they
have fully ripened.

Related Species

Bishop’s weed (A. majus, p. 166)
is a close relative. This plant has
been used to treat asthma but is
mainly taken as a diuretic and to
treat psoriasis.

Key Constituents

■ Furochromones including
khellin (1%) and visnagin

■ Coumarins

■ Flavonoids

■ Volatile oil

■ Phytosterols

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Antiasthmatic

■ Relaxant

Research

■ Strong antispasmodic

Research by a pharmacologist
working in Egypt in 1946 revealed
that visnaga (in particular its
constituents khellin and visnagin)
has a powerful antispasmodic action
on the smaller bronchial muscles,
the coronary arteries that supply
blood to the heart, and on the
urinary tubules. Visnaga’s ability
to relax the small bronchi lasts
for up to 6 hours, and the plant
has practically no side effects.

■ Khellin Intal, an asthma drug
widely used in conventional medicine,
is derived chemically from khellin.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Kidney stones Visnaga is a
traditional Egyptian remedy for
kidney stones. It was mentioned
in the Ebers papyrus of Egypt
(c. 1 500 bce) and is still used
there to relieve kidney stones.

By relaxing the muscles of the
ureter, visnaga reduces the pain
caused by the trapped stone
and helps ease the stone down
into the bladder.

■ Asthma remedy Following
research into its antispasmodic
properties, visnaga is now given
for asthma, and is safe even for
children to take. Although it does
not always relieve acute asthma
attacks, it does help to prevent
their recurrence.

■ Other respiratory conditions

Visnaga is an effective remedy
for various respiratory problems,
including bronchitis, emphysema,
and whooping cough.

Seeds

Key Preparations & Their Uses

©Cautions Take only under professional supervision. Long-term use produces
symptoms such as nausea, headaches, and insomnia. Subject to legal restrictions
in some countries.

ES Parts Used

Seeds from the fruit of the fresh plant are
collected in late summer and dried for use
in infusions and powders.

Fresh plant
in fruit

y

Infusion alleviates asthma,
bronchitis, and kidney stones.

Powder is prescribed by doctors and
medical herbalists to relieve angina.

■ Circulatory herb By

relaxing the coronary arteries,
visnaga helps to improve blood
supply to the heart muscle and
thereby eases angina. Visnaga
does not, however, reduce
blood pressure.

■ Dental hygiene In Andalusia
in Spain, the largest and best-quality
visnaga seeds were employed to clean
the teeth. The high value given to the
herb in general was reflected in the
saying: “Oro, plata, visnaga, o nada!”
(Gold, silver, visnaga, or nothing!).

ANGELICA SINENSIS

Angelica sinensis syn. A. polymorpha (Apiaceae)

Dong Quai, Chinese Angelica, Dang Gui (Chinese)

Dong quai

A stout, erect
perennial growing to
6K ft (2 m), with large
bright green leaves
and hollow stems.

In China, dong quai is the main tonic herb for
conditions suffered by women. It is taken on a daily
basis by millions of women as an invigorating tonic,
helping to regulate menstruation and tonify the blood.
It also improves the circulation. Dong quai has a sweet,
pungent aroma that is very distinctive, and in China it
is often used in cooking, which is the best way to take
it as a blood tonic.

Dong quai has attractive clusters
of white flowers in summer.

Habitat & Cultivation

Dong quai is native to China
and Japan, where it is now cultivated.
The best rhizomes are in Gansu
province in China. Seed is sown
in spring and the rhizomes are
lifted in autumn.

Related Species

American angelica (A. atropurpurea)
has similar properties, though it is
less aromatic. European angelica
(A. archangelica, p. 168) is a warming
tonic herb for digestion and
circulation, but does not have the
same tonic action as dong quai.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (ligustilide,
sesquiterpenes, carvacrol)

■ Coumarins

■ Phytosterols

■ Polyacetylenes

■ Ferulic acid

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antispasmodic

■ Thins blood

■ Promotes menstrual flow

Research

■ Gynecology Research in
China from the 1970s has shown
that the herb helps to regulate
uterine contractions, which may
explain its benefit for period pain.

■ Circulation The root can help
to normalize heart function and
has been shown to thin the blood.

It may therefore interact with
anticoagulant medicines.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Blood tonic Famous in China as
a tonic, dong quai is taken for
“deficient blood” conditions, anemia,
and for the symptoms of anemia
due to blood loss—a pale complexion,
palpitations, and lowered vitality.

■ Women’s health Dong quai
regulates the menstrual cycle, relieves
period pain and cramps, and

is an ideal tonic for women with heavy
menstruation who risk becoming
anemic. However, as it stimulates
menstrual bleeding, other tonic herbs
such as nettle ( Urtica dioica, p. 146)
are best taken during menstruation if
the flow is heavy. It is also a uterine
tonic, and helps infertility.

■ Circulation Dong quai

is a “warming” herb, improving the
circulation to the abdomen and
to the hands and feet. It strengthens
the digestion and is also useful in the
treatment of abscesses and boils.

Self-help Uses

■ Aiding conception, p. 3 16.

■ Menstrual problems, p. 3 15.

ES Parts Used

Rhizome is valued for
its medicinal properties
and is often used
in cooking.

Rhizome is large
and brownish on
the outside and
white inside

Sliced dried
rhizome

0 Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Should not be
used for heavy menstrual bleeding, bleeding disorders, and diarrhea. May interact
with prescribed blood-thinning medication.

Tonic wine Make with dong quai and other tonic
or bitter herbs (see p. 293). To improve vitality,
drink a 54 cup (150 ml) daily.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For period pain, take Vitsp
with water up to 4 times
a day.

Chopped rhizome

is commonly added
to soups in China.

Infusion For poor
circulation, infuse
I tsp with % cup
(150 ml) water
(see p. 291). Drink
3 A-I A cups (150—
300 ml) a day.

Decoction (to make, p. 291). For anemia, take % cup (150 ml) 2-3 times a day.
Tablets Take as a general female tonic.

63

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

64

A P I U M G R

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Celery

More familiar as a vegetable than as a medicine, celery
stems and seeds have long been taken for urinary,
rheumatic, and arthritic problems, Celery is a good
cleansing, diuretic herb, and the seeds are used specifically
for arthritic complaints where there is an accumulation
of waste products. The seeds also have a reputation as
a carminative with a mild tranquilizing effect. The stems
are less significant medicinally.

AVEOLENS

Celery

A biennial with a
ridged shiny stem,
glossy leaves, and small
flowers, growing to
about 20 in (50 cm).

0 Parts Used

Stems are eaten as a nourishing
vegetable and made into juice.

Divided
toothed leaves
are aromatic

Chopped

stem

Seeds contain
volatile oil and
are the main part
used medicinally.

-C\' A $

Seeds

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take celery seed during pregnancy or
if suffering from kidney disease. Do not use seeds sold for
cultivation in medicinal preparations. Do not take the essential
oil internally except under professional supervision.

Remedy As a cleansing drink,
take % cup (150 ml) of
organic carrot and celery
juice a day.

Infusion of seeds (to
make, p. 29 I). For gout
and arthritis, take 3 /4 cup
(150 ml) daily.

Tincture of seeds (to make, p. 292).

For rheumatism, take 30 drops 3 times a day.

Powder of seeds. For arthritis, mix I tsp with food each day.

Celery is an important medicinal herb
as well as a vegetable.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Britain and other European
countries, celery is found growing
wild along the English and Welsh
coasts, and in marshlands. Widely
grown as a vegetable, cultivated
celery is less fragrant than the
wild variety. It is propagated from
seed in spring and harvested
from midsummer to autumn.

Related Species

Celeriac (A. graveolens var. rapaceum)
is a “turnip-rooted” variety of celery.
A medicinal food, it has some of the
same qualities as celery.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (1.5-3%) containing
limonene (60-70%), phthalides,
and beta-selinene

■ Coumarins

■ Furanocoumarins (bergapten)

■ Flavonoids (apiin)

Key Actions

■ Antirheumatic

■ Carminative

■ Antispasmodic

■ Diuretic

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Urinary antiseptic

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

■ Volatile oil Research in the 1970s
and 1980s showed that the volatile oil
has a calming effect on the central
nervous system.

■ Other research A 1995 study in
India found the seeds to have marked
liver-protective activity. Extracts of
the seeds may also lower blood fat
levels. Iranian laboratory research
from 2013 found that celery seed
had a marked effect in lowering high
blood pressure.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Ancient herb Records show
that celery has been cultivated
for at least 3,000 years, notably in
pharaonic Egypt, and it was known
in China in the 5th century bce.
Throughout history, celery has been
used as a food, and at various times
both the whole plant and the seeds
have been taken medicinally.

■ Cleansing properties Today,
the seeds are used for treating
rheumatic conditions and gout.

They help the kidneys dispose of
urates and other waste products,
and work to reduce acidity in the
body as a whole. The seeds are
useful in arthritis, helping to
detoxify the body and improve
the circulation of blood to the
muscles and joints.

■ Diuretic Celery seeds have
a mildly diuretic and significantly
antiseptic action. They are an

effective treatment for cystitis,
helping to disinfect the bladder and
urinary tubules.

■ Nutritious drink Celery and
organic carrot juice make a nutritious,
cleansing drink that is good for many
chronic illnesses.

■ Other uses Celery seeds are

beneficial for chest problems such
as asthma and bronchitis, and, in
combination with other herbs, can
help to reduce blood pressure.

Self-help Uses

■ Arthritis, p. 3 13.

■ Gout, p. 3 13.

ARCTIUM LAPPA

Arctium lappa (Asteraceae)
Burdock, Niu BangZi (Chinese)

Burdock

A biennial, with
stems that grow to 5 ft
(1.5 m), reddish-purple
flower heads, and
hooked bracts.

Burdock is one of the foremost detoxifying herbs in
both Western and Chinese herbal medicine. It is used
to treat conditions caused by an “overload” of toxins,
such as throat and other infections, boils and rashes,
and chronic skin problems. The root and the seeds help
to cleanse the body of waste products, and the root is
thought to be particularly good at helping to eliminate
heavy metals.

Burdock in its first year produces a rosette
of large leaves.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Europe and Asia, burdock
now grows in temperate regions
throughout the world, including the

ES Parts Used

U.S. Burdock is also cultivated in
Europe and China and is propagated
from seed in spring. The seeds are
harvested in summer and the whole
plant is unearthed in high summer.

Related Species

A. minus and A. tomentosum are
related species that are used in
a similar way to burdock.

Key Constituents

■ Bitter glycosides (arctiopicrin)

■ Flavonoids (arctiin)

■ Tannins

■ Polyacetylenes

■ Volatile oil

■ Inulin (up to 45%)

■ Lignans

Key Actions

■ Detoxifying

■ Mild diuretic

■ Antibiotic

■ Antiseptic

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

■ Antibiotic Studies in Germany
(1967) and Japan (1986) showed
that the polyacetylenes, especially
within the fresh root, have an
antibiotic effect.

■ Other research Burdock has
antibacterial and antifungal properties,
and diuretic and hypoglycemic
(lowering blood-sugar levels) effects.

It also seems to have an anti-tumor
action. Recent studies suggest

the seeds are anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, and hepatoprotective.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ History Burdock was a
traditional remedy for gout, fevers,
and kidney stones. In the 17th century,
Culpeper wrote, “The seed is much
commended to break the stone and
cause it to be expelled by urine.”

■ Cleansing herb Burdock is used
in both Western and Chinese herbal
medicine as a detoxifying herb. The
seeds are used to remove toxins in
fevers and infections such as mumps
and measles, and the root helps the
body to eliminate waste products in
chronic skin and arthritic conditions.

■ Skin problems Burdock’s
diuretic, antibiotic, and mildly bitter
actions make it helpful for skin
disorders, especially where toxicity
is a key factor, such as in acne,
abscesses, local skin infections,
eczema, and psoriasis.

■ Combination remedies
Burdock is rarely used on its own

in remedies. It is generally mixed with
herbs such as dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale, p. 141) or yellow dock
(Rumex crispus, p. 264). These help
the body to remove accumulated
waste products drawn out of tissues
by burdock’s detoxifying action. Use
of burdock alone can cause a flare-up
of skin conditions such as eczema.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Skin rashes, p. 303.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Cautions Very rarely can cause contact dermatitis.

Dandelion

Remedy For pimples, make
a decoction (see p. 291) with
2 tsp burdock root and 5 tsp
dandelion root. Drink % cup
(150 ml) twice a day.

I Burdock

Tincture of root (to make, p. 292).
For arthritis and skin disorders,
take 20 drops diluted with water
2-3 times a day for up to 4 weeks.

Decoction of root (to make, p. 291) is an alternative to tincture for
arthritis and skin disorders. Drink 7 tsp once a day for up to 4 weeks.

Infusion of seeds (to make, p. 291). Use as a wash for acne and boils.

Seeds

Dried leaves

Poultice of leaves (to make, p. 295). Apply to abscesses and boils.

65

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM

Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae)

Wormwood

One of the truly bitter plants —absinthium means
“without sweetness’’—wormwood has a strong tonic
effect on the digestive system, especially on the stomach
and gallbladder. It is taken in small doses and sipped, the
intensely bitter taste playing an important part in its
therapeutic effect. In the past, wormwood was one of
the main flavorings of vermouth (whose name derives
from the German for wormwood).

Wormwood is strongly aromatic
and was used to flavor many
alcoholic drinks.

Habitat & Cultivation

Wormwood is a wayside plant, native to
Europe. It now grows wild in central
Asia and in eastern parts of the U.S. It is
also cultivated in temperate regions
worldwide. Wormwood is propagated
from seed in spring or by dividing the
roots in autumn. The aerial parts are
harvested in late summer

Related Species

Artemisia species with a medicinal
use include A. abrotanum (p. 172);

A. annua (p. 67); A. anomala ;

A. capillaris and A. cina (p. 172);

A. vulgaris and A. dracunculus (p. 173).

66

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil containing
sesquiterpene lactones (artabsin,
anabsinthin); thujone; azulenes

■ Flavonoids

■ Polyphenols

■ Lignans

Key Actions

■ Aromatic bitter

■ Stimulates secretion of bile

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Eases stomach pain

■ Mild antidepressant

■ Antimicrobial

■ Antiparasitic

Research

■ Bitter herb Research into
wormwood, mostly during the 1970s,
has established that a range of

the constituents within the plant
contributes to its medicinal activity.
Many are very bitter, affecting the
bitter taste receptors on the tongue
which sets off a reflex action,
stimulating stomach and other
digestive secretions.

■ Gut inflammation A German
clinical trial in 2007 found that
wormwood helped in treating
Crohn’s disease (an inflammatory
bowel disorder). Wormwood
prevented the return of symptoms in
90% of those taking it, and reduced
required dosage of powerful steroid
drugs taken to control inflammation.
Patients also experienced lower
levels of depression.

■ Other research Constituents
within wormwood, notably the
essential oil, are thought to have
wide-ranging therapeutic effects,
including neuroprotective,
antidepressant, antibacterial,
antifungal, and antimalarial activity.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Absinthe Wormwood is the
source of absinthe, an addictive
drink favored in 19th-century
France. Flavored with wormwood
essential oil, absinthe was toxic due
to its high level of thujone. This is

Wormwood

A perennial reaching
3 ft (I m), with gray-
green stems and
feathery leaves, both
covered in fine hairs.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

@ Cautions Take only under professional supervision. Take only in small doses,
generally for no more than 4-5 weeks at a time. Do not take during pregnancy.

a nerve stimulant that is safe at low
dosage but is toxic in excess.

■ Digestive stimulant

Wormwood is an extremely useful
medicine for those with weak and
underactive digestion. It increases
stomach acid and bile production and
therefore improves digestion and the
absorption of nutrients, making it
helpful for many conditions, including
anemia. Wormwood also eases gas
and bloating and, if the tincture is
taken regularly, it slowly strengthens
digestion and helps the body return
to full vitality and wellness after a
prolonged illness.

■ Worms Wormwood is commonly
used by herbalists and naturopaths
to treat parasitic infections of the gut,
such as worm infestation, amebic
dysentery, and Shigella infection.

■ Traditional insect repellent
Wormwood is a good insecticide and
insect repellent.

■ Other uses The anti-inflammatory
action of wormwood makes it useful
for infections, and it has occasionally
been given as an antidepressant.

Self-help Uses

■ Anemia, p. 301.

■ High fever, p. 3 I I.

ARTEMISIA ANNUA

Artemisia annua (Asteraceae)

Sweet Annie, Qing Hao

Sweet Annie

A perennial growing to
about 3 ft (I m), with
green feathery leaves
covered in fine hairs.

Until the 1970s, sweet Annie was regarded as just another
Artemisia, though one used in traditional Chinese medicine
for treating malaria. After extensive research, sweet Annie
and its key constituent artemisinin were shown to have
powerful antimalarial activity and few side effects.
Artemisinin rapidly became the key treatment for severe
malaria worldwide, and is still the treatment of choice in
many acute cases of the illness.

Sweet Annie has bright green, saw-toothed
leaves. It is used widely around the world as
an effective antimalarial.

Habitat & Cultivation

Sweet Annie grows in grasslands and
in open areas in Vietnam, Japan, China,
Russia, and North America. It is
cultivated in eastern China. The herb
is propagated from seed in spring
or by dividing the rootstock in
autumn. It is harvested in summer
before flowering.

Related Species

The related A. apioceo is used
interchangeably with sweet Annie
in China and is employed as a
general tonic in Vietnam. Many
other Artemisia species are used
medicinally: A. abrotanum (p. 172);

A. absinthium (p. 66); A. capillaris and
A. cina (p. 172); A. dracunculus and A.
vulgaris (p. 173).

Key Constituents

■ Artemisinin (sesquiterpene
lactone)

■ Essential oil (abrotamine, beta-
bourbonene)

■ Flavonoids

■ Polyphenols

Key Actions

■ Bitter

■ Reduces fever

■ Antimalarial

■ Antiparasitic

■ Anti-cancer

Research

■ Chinese research Sweet Annie
was extensively researched in China
in the 1980s, and studies have
demonstrated that its key active
constituent is an effective antimalarial,
having a powerful action against the
malaria parasite Plasmodium, a
protozoan introduced into the body
by the mosquito.

■ Artemisinin Clinical trials,
notably in Thailand, show that it can
provide vital treatment in the acute
stages of malaria, proving up to 90%
effective in countering the infection.
Artemisinin has a lesser role to play
in chronic malaria and prevention of
the disease.

■ Anti-cancer potential

Laboratory studies suggest that
sweet Annie has marked anti¬
cancer activity, promoting
programmed cell death and inhibiting
blood vessel growth. No clinical
trials have so far been undertaken,
but sweet Annie is claimed to be
useful particularly in breast cancer
and leukemia. Synthetic molecules
modelled on artemisinin are also
being researched as potential anti¬
cancer drugs.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ History The first mention of
sweet Annie was in a Chinese text of
1 68 bce. Traditionally, it was seen as

E3 Parts Used

Leaves contain
artemisinin, which
is a powerful
antimalarial.

Leaves are
harvested
in summer

Fresh leaves

Dried leaves

Key Preparations & Their Uses

©Cautions Only take sweet Annie under professional supervision.
Do not take during pregnancy.

Tincture is prescribed to prevent malaria. Infusion is strongly bitter. Herbalists
It is also used to treat the illness itself. use it to treat headaches and fever.

Tablets containing artemisinin, which is extracted from the herb, are taken for
malaria throughout the tropics.

an herb that helped “to clear and
relieve summer heat.”

■ Cooling properties Sweet
Annie has a cool, bitter taste and is
used for conditions brought
on by heat, especially with symptoms
such as fever, headaches, dizziness,
and a tight-chested sensation. It is
used to treat chronic fevers, night
fevers, and morning chills and is a
traditional remedy for nosebleeds
associated with heat.

■ Antimalarial Sweet Annie has
been used to treat the fevers
and chills of malaria for thousands
of years, and artemisinin is now used
in many countries as an antimalarial.
Artemisinin reduces the risk of
developing malaria and aids a quick
recovery, though drug resistance to it
is now being seen. The whole plant
may also be used to treat malaria and
act as a preventative, though large
doses are required.

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ASTRAGALUS MEMBRANACEUS

Astragalus membranaceus (Fabaceae)
Astragalus, Milk Vetch, Huang Qi (Chinese)

Astragalus

A perennial growing
to 16 in (40 cm) with
hairy stems and leaves
divided into 12-18 pairs
of leaflets.

Despite the fact that astragalus is one of the most
popular tonic herbs in China, it is not that well known
in the West. In China, the root, known as huang qi, has
been used for thousands of years. It has a sweet taste
and is a warming tonic particularly suited to young,
active people, increasing stamina and endurance, and
improving resistance to the cold. It is often combined
with other herbs as a blood tonic.

Astragalus is a typical member of the pea
family and is closely related to liqorice.

Habitat & Cultivation

Astragalus is native to Mongolia
and northern and eastern China.

It is grown from seed in spring or
autumn and thrives in sandy, well-
drained soil, with plenty of sun.

The roots of 4-year-old plants are
harvested in autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Triterpene saponins
(astragolosides)

■ Isoflavonoids (formonentin)

■ Polysaccharides

■ Phytosterols

Key Actions

■ Adaptogenic

■ Immune stimulant

■ Diuretic

■ Vasodilator

■ Antiviral

Research

■ Chinese investigations

Investigations in China indicate that
astragalus is diuretic and that it lowers
blood pressure and increases
endurance. A 2012 clinical trial

found that 5 g a day of astragalus root
helped to stabilize kidney function in
patients with chronic kidney disease,
delaying the need for dialysis.

■ Western research Recent
American research has focused on
the ability of astragalus to restore
normal immune function in cancer
patients. Clinical evidence suggests
that, as with a number of other
herbs, cancer patients undergoing
chemotherapy or radiotherapy
recover faster and live longer if
given astragalus concurrently.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Tonic & endurance remedy

Astragalus is a classic energy
tonic, perhaps even superiorto
ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118)
for young people. In China, it is
believed to warm and tone the
wei qi (a protective energy that
circulates just beneath the skin),
helping the body to adapt to
external influences, especially to
the cold. Astragalus raises immune
resistance and manifestly improves
physical endurance.

■ Control of fluids Though a
vasodilator (encouraging blood to
flow to the surface), astragalus is
used for excessive sweating, including
night sweats. It is also helpful in both
relieving fluid retention and reducing
thirstiness. It supports normal kidney
function and is thought to protect
the kidneys from damage.

■ Immune stimulant Not an
herb for acute illness, astragalus is
nonetheless a very useful medicine
for viral infections such as the
common cold.

0 Parts Used

Root is a traditional tonic remedy
in China, improving energy levels
and helping the body to resist cold.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Do not take astragalus if suffering from skin disorders,
or during acute illness.

Dry-fried root As a stimulant tonic,
each day fry 5-10 g root by itself
or with I tsp of honey and eat
with meals.

Remedy For cold and numbness, make
a decoction (see p. 291) with 20 g root
and 5 g cinnamon. Drink % cup (150 ml)
twice a day.

Cinnamon

Chinese

angelica

Decoction For anemia, make a decoction
(see p. 291) with 12 g root and 12 g Chinese
angelica. Take I !4 cups (300 ml) daily.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For night sweats, take I tsp with water
1-2 times daily.

■ Other uses Astragalus is used to
treat prolapsed organs, especially
the uterus, and it is beneficial for
uterine bleeding. Astragalus is often

used in combination with dong
quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63) in
order to act as a blood tonic for
treating anemia.

68

AT RO PA BELLADONNA

Atropa belladonna (Solanaceae)

Deadly Nightshade, Belladonna

Although deadly nightshade conjures up images of
poison and death, like many plants it is an important
and beneficial remedy when used correctly. Some of
its constituents are employed in conventional medicine,
for example to dilate the pupils for eye examinations
and as an anesthetic. In herbal medicine, deadly
nightshade is mainly prescribed to relieve intestinal
colic and to treat peptic ulcers.

Deadly nightshade produces unmistakable
cherry-sized, glossy black berries
in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation

Deadly nightshade is native to
Europe, western Asia, and northern
Africa, and is now cultivated
worldwide. It thrives in chalky soils,
in woods, and in open areas. The
leaves are harvested in summer, and
the root is collected from the first
year onward in autumn.

Related Species

Many of the Solanaceae family
are powerful medicines, including
eggplant (Solarium melongena,
p. 270), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum,
p. 240), and henbane (Hyoscyamus
niger, p. 220).

Key Constituents

■ Tropane alkaloids (up to 0.6%),
including hyoscyamine and atropine

■ Flavonoids

■ Coumarins

■ Volatile bases (nicotine)

Key Actions

■ Smooth muscle antispasmodic

■ Narcotic

■ Reduces sweating

■ Sedative

Research

■ Tropane alkaloids, The action
of the tropane alkaloids is well
understood. They inhibit the
parasympathetic nervous system,
which controls involuntary bodily
activities. This reduces saliva; gastric,
intestinal, and bronchial secretions;
as well as the activity of the urinary
tubules, bladder, and intestines.
Tropane alkaloids also increase
heart rate and dilate the pupils.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Folklore Deadly nightshade was
believed to help witches fly. Its other
name “belladonna” (beautiful woman)
is thought to refer to its use by Italian
women to dilate the pupils of their
eyes, making them more attractive.

■ Relaxant Deadly nightshade
has been used in the same way
throughout history. It is prescribed
to relax distended organs, especially
the stomach and intestines, relieving
intestinal colic and pain. It helps
peptic ulcers by reducing gastric
acid production, and it relaxes
spasms of the urinary tubules.

■ Parkinson’s disease The herb
can be used to treat the symptoms
of Parkinson’s disease, reducing
tremors and rigidity, and improving
speech and mobility.

■ Anesthetic muscle-relaxant
properties of deadly nightshade make
it useful in conventional medicine as
an anesthetic, particularly when
digestive or bronchial secretions
need to be kept to a minimum.

Deadly nightshade

A perennial with large
leaves and black
berries, growing to
5 ft (1.5 m).

Key Preparations & Their Uses

©Cautions Take only if prescribed by a medical herbalist or doctor.
Deadly nightshade can be fatal if taken at the wrong dosage.

Tincture, made from the leaves or the root,
is a strong relaxant. It is prescribed by herbal
practitioners to relieve colic and to treat
Parkinson’s disease.

Leaves are harvested in early summer.
They have a weaker action than the root,
and are more commonly used.

Dried leaves

Leaves, like the root,
have relaxant
properties.

E3 Parts Used

Fresh leaves

Dried root

Fresh root

Root is collected
in autumn.

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AZADIRACHTA I N D I C A

70

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)
Neem, Margosa Tree

Neem

An evergreen tree,
growing to 52 ft (16 m),
with compound leaves
and white flowers.

Neem is one of the most valued herbs in Indian and
Ayurvedic medicine. Extracts of the leaves are used to
treat conditions such as asthma, eczema, diabetes, and
rheumatism, while neem oil has been applied as a hair
lotion, to treat headlice, and to calm angry skin rashes.
Research indicates that neem may prove useful as an
insecticide and a contraceptive. The tree itself is said
to purify the air and is widely planted in India.

Neem has so many medicinal uses that the
tree is considered a “natural pharmacy.”

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Iran, Pakistan, India, and
Sri Lanka, neem is found throughout
the subcontinent in forests and
woods, often being planted on
roads to provide shade. It is now
naturalized in other tropical regions,
including Malaysia, Indonesia,
Australia, and West Africa. It is
grown from seed. Leaves and seed
are harvested throughout the year.

Related Species

Melia azedoroch, also an Indian plant,
is a very close relative with particular
value in treating intestinal worms. It is
often used as a substitute for neem.

Key Constituents

■ Meliacins

■ Liminoids

■ Triterpenoid bitters

■ Sterols

■ Tannins

■ Flavonoids

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Lowers fever

■ Antimicrobial

■ Promotes wound healing

■ Antiparasitic

■ Antimalarial

Research

■ Recent research This indicates
that neem oil is both anti-inflammatory
and antibacterial, and to some degree
reduces fever and lowers blood-
sugar levels.

■ Insecticide Extensive research
shows that liminoid azadirachtins are
insecticidal and inhibit feeding and
growth—making neem an inexpensive
and ecologically sound insecticidal
agent. The azadirachtins are also linked
to the tree’s antimalarial activity.

■ Diabetes Research indicates that
neem leaf and oil act to stabilize blood-
sugar levels and may be helpful in
treating or delaying type 2 diabetes.

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Medicine chest Thought of in
India as almost a pharmacy in its own
right, all parts of the neem tree may
be used medicinally. The bark is bitter
and astringent and a decoction is used
for hemorrhoids. The leaves are taken
as an infusion for malaria, peptic ulcers,
and intestinal worms, and may be
applied locally as a juice, infusion, or
ointment to skin problems including
ulcers, wounds, boils, and eczema.
The juice of the leaves is also
applied to the eyes to treat night
blindness and conjunctivitis. The twigs
are used as a tooth cleanser, firming
up the gums and preventing

gum disease.

■ Neem oil and sap Neem
oil, expressed from the seeds,

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Do not take during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, or during fertility
treatment. In children, use topically only. Longterm high-dose treatment is not advisable.

Oil from the seeds is used to prevent and
treat infestations of headlice. Apply daily
to the scalp.

Cream (to make, p. 296)
is used to treat many skin
disorders, including eczema.
Apply as required.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is bitter and can be used to treat fevers.
Infusion of the leaves (to make, p. 291) can be used for conjuctivitis.
■=ss Decoction of the bark (to make, p. 29 I) is strongly bitter and astringent.

0 Parts Used

Leaves can be infused and
applied as a lotion to many skin
rashes, including acne, eczema,
and psoriasis.

Twigs are

used as toothpicks
to improve oral
hygiene.

Fresh

leaves

Seeds contain neem oil, which
can be expressed and used to treat
headlice in adults and children.

is commonly used as a hair dressing
and is strongly antifungal and
antiviral, preventing scabies and
ringworm, among other things.

It can be made into a useful and
easily applied treatment for headlice.
The oil is also used to treat skin

conditions such as eczema,
psoriasis, and even leprosy, and as
a vehicle for other active ingredients.
Neem oil should be avoided when
attempting to conceive a child as
it can reduce fertility in both
women and men.

B A R 0 S M A BETULINA

Barosma betulina syn. Agathosma betulina (Rutaceae)

Buchu

Buchu

A bushy shrub growing
to 6 Vi ft (2 m), with
stemless, slightly
leathery leaves dotted
with oil glands.

A traditional South African remedy, buchu is taken as a
stimulant, a diuretic, and to relieve digestive complaints.
In Western herbal medicine, it is valued as a urinary
antiseptic and diuretic, and is used specifically to treat
cystitis and other infections of the urinary tract. Buchu
has a strongly distinctive aroma and taste, reminiscent
of black currant but described by some as a mixture
between rosemary and peppermint.

Buchu is grown commercially and used to
enhance the black-currant flavor of cassis.

Habitat & Cultivation

Buchu is native to South Africa,
where is it widely cultivated on
hillsides. It is also grown in parts
of South America. The herb is
grown from cuttings in late summer
and requires well-drained soil
and plenty of sun. The leaves
are harvested when the plant is
flowering or fruiting in summer.

Related Species

Two closely related species,

B. crenulata and B. serratifolia,
are used in a similar way to buchu,
but contain less volatile oil and
are not so effective.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (1.5-2.5%),
including pulegone, menthone,
diosphenol

■ Sulphur compounds

■ Flavonoids (diosmin, rutin)

■ Mucilage

Key Actions

■ Urinary antiseptic

■ Diuretic

■ Stimulant

■ Uterine stimulant

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional remedy Buchu is
a traditional remedy of the Khoisan
people of South Africa. It is used as
a general stimulant and a diuretic.
Strongly aromatic, it is taken as a
carminative, helping to relieve gas
and bloating.

■ Early Western uses The herb
was first exported to Britain in

1790 and became an official medicine
in 1821, being listed in the British
Pharmacopoeia as an effective
remedy for “cystitis, urethritis,
nephritis, and catarrh of the bladder.”

■ Modern urinary treatment
Broadly speaking, buchu is used today
in Western herbal medicine for the
same type of urinary complaints as
in the 19th century. It is commonly
prescribed for urinary tract infections,
often proving effective in curing acute
cystitis when combined with other
herbs such as cornsilk ( Zea mays,

p. 154) and juniper (Juniperus
communis, p. 224). Taken regularly, it
can help to prevent recurrent attacks
of chronic cystitis or urethritis. It is
also taken for prostatitis and irritable
bladder, often in combination with
herbs such as uva-ursi ( Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi, p. 170) and cornsilk. The key
active constituent diosphenol has a
diuretic action, and may partly
account for the herb’s antiseptic
effect on the urinary system.

■ Gynecological uses Buchu
infusion or tincture is useful in
treatments for cystitis and urethritis,
especially when they are related to a

E3 Parts Used

Leaves are harvested
in summer and used
in preparations for
urinary infections.

Leaves contain
volatile oil, which
is antiseptic

Dried leaves

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions During pregnancy take only on advice of your health care practitioner.
Potentially toxic at excessive dosage.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I ).
For prostatitis, drink % cup
(150 ml) twice a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For chronic urinary infections,
take 40 drops with water
3 times a day.

Capsules (to make, p. 292).
For cystitis, take a 500 mg
capsule twice daily.

pre-existing Candida problem, such as
yeast infections. The infusion is generally
preferable to the tincture, particularly
when onset of infection is sudden. The
infusion is also used as a douche for
leukorrhea (white vaginal discharge),
and occasionally for yeast infections.

The herb is a uterine stimulant and
contains pulegone, which is also present

in large quantities in pennyroyal
(Mentha pulegium, p. 235). Pulegone
is an abortifacient and a powerful
emmenagogue (stimulates menstrual
flow). Buchu should not, therefore,
be taken during pregnancy.

Self-help Use

■ Urinary infections, p. 3 14.

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72

BUPLEURUM C HIN E N S E

Bupleurum chinense syn. B. scorzoneraefolium (Apiaceae)
Bupleurum, Hare's Ear Root, Chai Hu (Chinese)

Bupleurum

A perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m) high, with
sickle-shaped leaves
and clusters of small
yellow flowers.

First mentioned in texts from the I st century bce,
bupleurum is one of China’s “harmony” herbs, balancing
different organs and energies within the body. It is used
as a tonic, strengthening the action of the digestive tract,
improving liver function, and helping to push blood to
the surface of the body. Recent research in Japan has
endorsed traditional use, showing that bupleurum
protects the liver.

Bupleurum is commonly on sale in medicinal
herb shops in China. It is widely taken as
a liver tonic.

Habitat & Cultivation

Bupleurum grows in China and is
cultivated throughout the central
and eastern parts of that country.

It is also found in other parts of
Asia and in Europe. Bupleurum is
propagated from seed in spring
or by root division in autumn and
requires well-drained soil and plenty
of sun. The root is unearthed
in spring and autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Triterpenoid saponins—saikosides
(saikosaponins)

■ Flavonoids

■ Polysaccharides

Key Actions

■ Protects liver

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Tonic

■ Induces sweating

Research

■ Saikosides Research in Japan from
the 1960s onward into the Bupleurum
genus has revealed that the saikosides

are potent medicines. They appear
to protect the liver from toxicity
and strengthen liver function, even
in people with immune system
disorders. Following this discovery
clinical trials during the 1980s in Japan
showed that the root is effective in
the treatment of hepatitis and other
chronic liver problems. Saikosides
also have antitumor activity

■ Anti-inflammatory The
saikosides stimulate the body’s
production of corticosteroids
as well as increasing their anti¬
inflammatory effect.

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Ancient Chinese remedy

Bupleurum has been taken in China
for over 2,000 years as a liver tonic. It
is traditionally believed to strengthen
liver qi and to have a tonic action on
the spleen and stomach. In Chinese
medicine, bupleurum is used to treat
“disharmony” between the liver and
the spleen, a condition that manifests
itself in problems of the digestive
system such as abdominal pain,
bloating, nausea, and indigestion.

■ Liver problems In common
with milk thistle (Corduus marianus,

p. 75) and members of the Glycyrrhizo
genus, for example licorice (G. globro,
p. 103), bupleurum is an excellent
remedy for a poorly functioning
or compromised liver. Its anti¬
inflammatory action may contribute
to its overall use in the treatment
of liver disease.

■ Fever In China, bupleurum is
taken to treat fevers, flu, and colds,
especially where accompanied by a
bitter taste in the mouth, irritability,

Root is harvested in spring and
autumn, when it contains the
most nutrients. It is used to
make a valuable liver tonic.

Sliced dried
root

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

E3 Parts Used

O Cautions Do not exceed the dose. Can occasionally cause nausea or vomiting.

Decoction (to make,
p. 291). To stimulate sweating
and so reduce fever, drink
3 A cup (150 ml) 3 times a day.

Liquorice

Remedy To improve liver function, decoct
15 g bupleurum, 5 g licorice, and 3 cups
(750 ml) water (see p. 291). Take in 3 doses
during a 24-hour period.

and either vomiting and abdominal
pain, or dizziness and vertigo.

■ Modern Japanese remedy

The traditional uses of bupleurum
and scientific research accord so well
that many Japanese doctors practic¬
ing conventional Western medicine

now use extracts of bupleurum root
to treat patients with liver problems.
■ Other uses Bupleurum is
sometimes useful in the treatment
of hemorrhoids, and of prolapsed
tissue in the pelvis, such as a prolapse
of the uterus.

CALENDULA OFFICINALIS

Calendula officinalis (Asteraceae)
Calendula, Pot Marigold, English Marigold

Calendula

An annual growing
to 2 ft (60 cm),
with vivid orange
flower heads similar in
structure to daisies.

Calendula is one of the most well known and versatile
herbs in Western herbal medicine. The bright orange
petals are an excellent remedy for inflamed and angry
skin, their antiseptic and healing properties helping to
prevent the spread of infection and speed up the rate
of repair. Calendula is also a cleansing and detoxifying
herb, and the infusion and tincture are used to treat
chronic infections.

Calendula's colorful flowers were thought to
lift the spirits and encourage cheerfulness.

Habitat & Cultivation

Calendula, native to southern
Europe, is cultivated in temperate
regions around the world. Easily
propagated from seed, it flourishes in
almost all soils. The flowers are
harvested as they open in early
summer, and are dried in the shade.

Related Species

C. arvense, a wild species, seems to
have similar therapeutic properties
to calendula.

Key Constituents

■ Triterpenes

■ Resins

■ Bitter glycosides

■ Volatile oil

■ Phytosterols

■ Flavonoids

■ Mucilage

■ Carotenes

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Relieves muscle spasms

■ Astringent

■ Prevents hemorrhaging

■ Heals wounds

■ Antimicrobial

■ Detoxifying

■ Mildly estrogenic

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Therapeutic properties

Calendula is antiseptic. Some
constituents are antifungal (particularly
the resins), antibacterial, and antiviral,
and have shown significant activity
against Candida albicans. The herb also
astringes the capillaries, an action that
explains its effectiveness for cuts,
wounds, varicose veins, and various
inflammatory conditions.

■ Skin remedy Calendula is above
all a remedy for the skin, providing
effective treatment for most minor
skin problems. It is used for cuts,
scrapes, and wounds; for red and
inflamed skin, including minor burns
and sunburn; for acne and many
rashes; and for fungal conditions such
as ringworm, athletes foot, and thrush.
It is very helpful for diaper rash and
cradle cap, and soothes nipples that
are sore from breastfeeding.

■ Digestive disorders Taken
internally, calendula infusion or
tincture helps inflammatory
problems of the digestive system
such as gastritis, peptic ulcers,
regional ileitis, and colitis.

■ Detoxifying Calendula has long
been considered a detoxifying herb,
and helps treat the toxicity that
underlies many fevers and infections,
and systemic skin disorders, such as
eczema and acne. The herb is also
considered cleansing for the liver and
gallbladder and can be used to treat
problems affecting these organs.

E3 Parts Used

Flowers are harvested in
summer. Flower heads and
petals are removed for use in
a wide range of preparations.

Dried flower
head

Fresh
flower heads

Bright orange
petals indicate
a high level of
active ingredients

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution May cause allergic reaction in rare cases.

Infused oil (to make, p. 294). For inflamed dry skin, rub into the area
2-3 times a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For eczema, take 30 drops with water 3 times a day.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I). For chronic
fungal infections, such as ringworm
or thrush, drink 34 cup (150 ml)

3 times a day.

Cream is easy to make (see p. 296).
Apply to cuts and grazes.

Ointment (to make,
p. 295). For minor burns,
apply up to 3 times a day.

■ Gynecological uses Calendula
has a mild estrogenic action and

is often used to help reduce pain
during menstruation and to regulate
menstrual bleeding. The infusion
makes an effective douche for
yeast infections.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304.

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Breast tenderness & sore
nipples, p. 3 15.

■ Digestive infections, p. 305.

■ Inflamed skin rashes, p. 303.

■ Diaper rash, p. 3 18.

■ Hives, p. 303.

■ Varicose veins, p. 302.

■ Wounds & bruises, p. 304.

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KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

74

CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS

Capsicum annuum & C. frutescens (Solanaceae)

Cayenne, Cayenne Pepper, Chili

Cayenne

A perennial, spiky
shrub growing to 3 ft
(I m), with scarlet-red
conical fruits filled with
white seeds.

Originally from the tropical regions of the Americas,
cayenne was first introduced to Europe in the 16th
century. In cooking, it is renowned for its hot, burning
taste, and it is not surprisingto learn that, medicinally,
it is a powerful warming stimulant. It acts on the
circulation and digestion and is used to treat a wide
range of complaints from arthritis and chilblains to colic
and diarrhea.

Cayenne is so popular in Mexico where it
originates that it is even used to flavor
ice cream.

Habitat & Cultivation

Cayenne is native to the tropical
Americas, and is now cultivated
throughout the tropics, especially
in Africa and India. It is grown from
seed in early spring and flourishes
in hot, moist conditions. The fruit
is harvested when ripe in summer
and is dried in the shade.

Related Species

Many closely related species and
varieties of C. frutescens exist, all
with different grades of pungency.
Paprika, or Hungarian pepper (one
of the mildest peppers), and the
large green and red peppers that
are eaten as vegetables are both
varieties of C. annuum and are
important medicinal foods.

Key Constituents

■ Capsaicin (0.1-1.5%)

■ Carotenoids

■ Flavonoids

■ Volatile oil

■ Steroidal saponins
(capsicidins—in seeds only)

Key Actions

■ Stimulant

■ Tonic

■ Carminative

■ Relieves muscle spasms

■ Antiseptic

■ Increases sweating

■ Increases blood flow to the skin

■ Analgesic

Research

■ Capsaicin Extensive clinical
research shows that capsaicin, the
compound in cayenne mostly
responsible for its hot, pungent taste,
has strong, local analgesic activity in
certain types of nerve pain. Applied
to the skin, capsaicin desensitizes
nerve endings and acts as a counter-
irritant. It is standardly prescribed for
relief of neuralgic pain. It may also
provide effective pain relief in con¬
ditions such as arthritis and headache.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Warming stimulant The herb’s
heating qualities make it a valuable
remedy for poor circulation. It
improves blood flow to the hands
and feet and to the central organs.

■ Antimicrobial In Mayan herbal
medicine, cayenne was used to
counter microbial infections—
different Capsicum species including
cayenne are now known to have
significant antimicrobial activity.
Adding cayenne to food reduces the
chances of developing gastric or
intestinal infection, and the herb is
frequently used by herbalists to treat
gastroenteritis and dysentery

■ External uses Applied locally
to the skin, cayenne is mildly

S3 Parts Used

Fruit improves digestion
and circulation.

Dried fruit

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Non-toxic at normal doses, although caution is required when
eating or handling cayenne. Can cause intense pain and burning,
and contact dermatitis.

Infused oil Add 100 g chopped
cayenne to 2 cups (500 ml) oil and
simmer (see p. 294). Gently massage
into rheumatic limbs.
Tincture (to make, p. 292). For arthritis,
combine 20 drops with A cup (100 ml) willow
bark tincture. Take I tsp with water twice a day

Tablets are convenient for long-term use. Take for poor circulation.
Ointment (to make, p. 295). Apply to chilblains (only if the skin is unbroken).

analgesic. It is also rubefacient,
increasing blood flow to the affected
part, and this helps to stimulate the
circulation in “cold” rheumatic and
arthritic conditions, aiding the
removal of waste products and
increasing the flow of nutrients to
the tissues. Cayenne may also be
applied to unbroken chilblains.

■ Internal uses Cayenne is taken
to relieve gas and colic and to

stimulate the secretion of digestive
juices. It may be taken in frequent,
small doses for a weak or failing
heart. A pinch of cayenne is
excellent when used in gargles for
sore throats. Cayenne is also helpful
in relieving acute diarrhea.

Self-help Uses

High fever, p. 3 I I.

■ Poor circulation, p. 302.

CASSIA SENNA

Cassia senna syn. Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)
Senna, Alexandrian Senna

Senna

A small perennial
shrub growing to
3 ft (I m), with a
straight, woody stem
and yellow flowers.

Almost everyone will have taken a preparation containing
senna at some time in their lives. Senna is probably one
of the best known herbal medicines, not least because it
is still widely used in conventional medicine. It is a very
efficient laxative and is a particularly useful remedy for
the occasional bout of constipation. It has a slightly bitter,
nauseating taste, and is therefore generally mixed with
other herbs.

Senna shrubs have pairs of lance¬
shaped leaflets arranged on either side
of a central stem.

Habitat & Cultivation

Senna is native to tropical Africa and
is now cultivated throughout that
continent. It is grown from seed in
spring or from cuttings in early summer
and requires plenty of sun. The leaves
may be picked before or while the plant
is in flower, and the pods are collected
when they are ripe in autumn.

Related Species

There are over 400 species of Cassia.
Tinnevelly senna (C. angustifolia ) is
grown in the Indian subcontinent and
has the same therapeutic properties
as C. senna. In Ayurvedic medicine,
it is used for skin problems, jaundice,
bronchitis, and anemia, as well as for
constipation. Jue mingzi (C. obtusifolia)
is used in traditional Chinese medicine
for “liver fire” patterns, constipation,
and atherosclerosis.

Key Constituents

■ Anthraquinone glycosides
(sennosides)

■ Naphthalene glycosides

■ Mucilage

■ Flavonoids

■ Volatile oil

Key Actions

■ Stimulant

■ Laxative

■ Cathartic

Research

■ Sennosides Extensive research
during the last 50 years has led to
a clear understanding of senna’s
action. The sennosides irritate the
lining of the large intestine, causing
the muscles to contract strongly,
resulting in a bowel movement about
10 hours after the dose is taken.

The sennosides also stop fluid being
absorbed from the large intestine,
helping to keep the stool soft.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Early records The herb was
first used medicinally by Arabian
physicians in the 9th century ce.

■ Constipation Senna has always
been specifically used for constipation.
It is particularly appropriate when a
soft stool is required, for example in
cases of anal fissure. Senna is a good
short-term laxative but should not

be taken for more than 10 days as
this leads to weakening of the large
intestine muscles.

■ Cathartic As a cathartic (very
strong laxative), senna can cause
cramping and colic, and is therefore
normally taken with aromatic,
carminative herbs that relax the
intestinal muscles.

Self-help Use

■ Constipation, p. 307.

E3 Parts Used

Leaves are stronger
in action than the
pods and are not
as commonly used.

Dried leaves

Fresh leaves

Pods are milder in effect than
the leaves. They are made into
tablets and other preparations.

Dried pods

Fresh pods

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not give to children under 12. Do not take for more than 10 days
at a time. Do not take if suffering from colitis. During pregnancy, take on advice
of your health care practitioner.

Tablets are the standard senna
preparation and are convenient.
Take for occasional constipation.

Decoction For constipation,
steep 3-6 senna pods and I g
fresh ginger in 34 cup (150 ml)
freshly boiled water for
6-12 hours. Strain and drink.

Infusion For mild constipation,
infuse 1-2 senna pods, I g fresh
ginger, and 1-2 cloves in 34 cup
(150 ml) freshly boiled water for
15 minutes. Strain and drink.

Tincture is prescribed by herbalists to treat short-term constipation.

75

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

CENTELLA ASI AT ICA

Centella asiatica syn. Hydrocotyle asiatica (Apiaceae)

Gotu Kola (Hindi), Indian Pennywort

Gotu kola

A perennial, herbaceous
creeper, growing to 20
in (50 cm), with fan¬
shaped leaves.

Traditional &

Current Uses
■ Wound healing Gotu kolas main
traditional use lies in treating wounds
and skin problems. In Ayurveda, it is
used specifically to promote healing in
skin ulcers and serious skin problems,
as well as to prevent scarring. The herb
may be applied directly to the skin, or
taken internally, where it appears to
promote tissue repair throughout the
body. It supports peripheral circulation
and can be taken to strengthen blood
vessels, e.g. varicose veins. Many
people swear by gotu kola’s ability to
prevent and relieve arthritis and
rheumatic problems.

Tonic The herb has a longstanding
reputation in India and southern
Asia as a “rejuvenator,” aiding
concentration and memory,
particularly in the elderly. In Western
herbal medicine, it is understood to
be an adaptogen and can be taken
long-term to help support healthy
brain function, slow aging, and calm
anxiety. It is also thought to have a
tonic effect on digestion.

Self-help Uses

■ Eczema, p. 300.

■ Maintaining vitality, p. 3 19.

0 Parts Used

Aerial parts have
valuable tonic and
cleansing properties.

India, fresh leaves are
eaten as atonic herb in salads

Research

■ Wound healing Gotu kola has
an established ability to promote
wound healing and tissue repair,
making it useful as a cosmetic agent,
in skin disorders such as psoriasis,
and in arthritis. Asiaticoside, in
particular, has been shown to speed
up collagen formation and the laying
down of new blood vessels. This
healing effect extends to the blood
vessels, so that gotu kola extracts aid
venous repair, notably in chronic
venous insufficiency, a condition that
includes symptoms such as leg
swelling and varicose veins. Recent
U.S. research has investigated the
effectiveness of high-strength
extracts to help in diabetic neuropathy
(nerve pain due to poor circulation)
with signs of positive benefit.

■ Brain function In the last 10
years, research has focused on gotu
kola’s ability to relieve anxiety and
support healthy brain function.

A Thai clinical trial in 2008 found that
gotu kola extract improved attention,
working memory, alertness, and
mood in 28 healthy volunteers with
an average age of 65. Another small
study found that gotu kola eased
the symptoms of anxiety.

BKey Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Can occasionally cause sensitivity to sunlight. Restricted
herb in some countries. May cause allergic reactions in rare cases.

Powder is an important Ayurvedic
remedy. Take I -2 g a day with
water as a general tonic.

Paste made from powder.
Mix 2 tsp powder with 5 tsp
(25 ml) water and apply to
patches of eczema.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I). For
rheumatism, take 7 tsp twice a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For poor memory and concentration,
take 40 drops with water 3 times a day.

Gotu kola is an ancient Ayurvedic remedy that is now used
extensively in the West. It is a useful tonic and cleansing
herb for skin problems and digestive disorders. In India,
it is used to treat a variety of conditions, including leprosy,
but it is valued chiefly as a revitalizing herb that strengthens
nervous function and memory. It has a bittersweet, acrid
taste, and in India it is sometimes used in salads and as
a vegetable.

seed in spring. The aerial parts are
harvested throughout the year.

Related Species

Marsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris )
is a related European species, but,
unlike gotu kola, has no known
therapeutic uses.

Dried aerial parts

Gotu kola is found growing wild
throughout India.

Habitat & Cultivation

Gotu kola is native to India and the
southern U.S. It also grows in tropical
and subtropical parts of Australia,
southern Africa, and South America.
It prefers marshy areas and
riverbanks. Though usually gathered
wild, gotu kola can be cultivated from

Key Constituents

■ Triterpenoid saponins (asiaticoside,
brahmoside, thankuniside)

■ Alkaloids (hydrocotyline)

■ Bitter principles (vellarin)

Key Actions

■ Wound healer

■ Tonic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Sedative

■ Peripheral vasodilator

76

CHAMOMILLA RECUTITA

Chamomilla recutita syn. Matricaria recutita (Asteraceae)

German Chamomile

German chamomile

A sweetly aromatic
annual growing to
2 ft (60 cm), with finely
cut leaves and white
flower heads.

German chamomile’s aromatic, slightly bitter taste,
reminiscent of apples, is familiar to herbal tea drinkers.
The herb’s varied medicinal uses, however, are not as
well known. It is an excellent herb for many digestive
disorders and for nervous tension and irritability.
Externally, it is used for sore skin and eczema. Roman
chamomile (Chamaemetum nobile, p. 187) is a close
relation, used in a similar way.

German chamomile is a useful herb to
cultivate for home use.

Habitat & Cultivation

German chamomile grows in much
of Europe and other temperate
regions. The seeds are sown in spring
or autumn and the flower heads are
picked in full bloom, in summer.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (proazulenes, farnesine,
alpha-bisabolol, spiroether)

■ Flavonoids

■ Bitter glycosides (anthemic acid)

■ Coumarins

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antiallergenic

■ Antispasmodic

■ Relaxant

■ Carminative

Research

■ Trials in Germany A cream
made from German chamomile
was tested in 1987 for its ability to
heal wounds. The results produced
were very positive. In 1993, another
trial using German chamomile and
four other herbs showed them

to be most effective at easing
infantile colic.

■ Premenstrual syndrome

An Iranian clinical trial compared
chamomile with mefenamic acid for
relief of premenstrual syndrome
symptoms. Both were found effective
in relieving the physical symptoms
of premenstrual syndrome, but
chamomile proved better in
relieving emotional symptoms.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Digestive problems German
chamomile has been taken for
digestive problems since at least
the I st century ce. Gentle and
efficacious, it is very suitable for
children. The herb is valuable for
pain, indigestion, acidity, gastritis, gas,
bloating, and colic. It is also

used for hiatal hernia, peptic ulcer,
Crohn’s disease, and irritable
bowel syndrome.

■ Relaxation German chamomile,
which contains spiroether, a strong
antispasmodic, eases tense muscles
and period pain. It is known that
women in ancient Rome commonly
took chamomile to relieve menstrual
cramps. Chamomile flowers also
reduce irritability and promote
sleep—especially helpful for children.

■ Irritation The herb is useful
for hay fever and asthma. On steam
distillation, the proazulenes produce
chamazulene, which is markedly
antiallergenic. Externally, it can be
applied to sore, itchy skin, sore
nipples, and eczema. It also relieves
eyestrain. A poultice can be applied
to sore breasts.

Self-help Uses

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

E3 Parts Used

Flower heads
contain volatile
oil, which has
antiallergenic
compounds

Flower heads may be used fresh
or dried. They should be picked on
the day they open, when the active

Fresh flower
heads

Dried
flower heads

0 Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions The fresh plant can cause dermatitis. Do not take the essential oil
internally except under professional supervision.Take only on professional advice if
using blood-thinning medication. Do not use the oil externally during pregnancy.

Cream (to make,
p. 296). Rub on to
sore or itchy skin.

Essential oil For diaper rash,
combine 5 drops with I tbsp
carrier oil and apply.

Making infusion with flower heads
(see p. 291). For a good night’s sleep,
drink cup (150 ml) before bed.

Infusion To relax irritable and overtired children, infuse 4tsp dried herb
in 2 cups (500 ml) water (see p. 291) and strain into a bath.

Ointment (to make, p. 295). Rub onto sore or inflamed skin.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For irritable bowel syndrome, take I tsp diluted
with U cup (100 ml) water 3 times a day.

■ Congestion & hay fever, p. 3 12.

■ Colic, p. 3 18.

■ Eczema, p. 300.

■ Indigestion, p. 307.

■ Insomnia, p. 309.

■ Mild asthma, p. 301.

■ Morning sickness, p. 3 17.

■ Sore & tired eyes, p. 3 10.

■ Sore nipples, p. 3 15.

■ Stomach spasm, p. 305.

77

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

CHRYSANTHEMUM X MORIFOLIUM

Chrysanthemum x morifolium (Asteraceae)

Ju Hua (Chinese), Florists' Chrysanthemum

Ju hua is known in the West as florists’ chrysanthemum
and is valued for its ornamental qualities. In China,
however, it is a popular medicinal herb and it is also
commonly drunk as a refreshing tisane. Ju hua is used
to improve vision and soothe sore eyes, to relieve
headaches, and to counter infections such as colds
and flu. Furthermore, research has demonstrated
that it is a valuable remedy for high blood pressure.

Ju hua flowers are colorful and have
been used medicinally in China since
the I st century ce.

Habitat & Cultivation

Ju hua is native to China. Today, it is
mostly cultivated, and is propagated
from cuttings in spring or early
summer. The flower heads are

ES Parts Used

gathered in autumn when fully open.
They are usually dried in the sun,
which can take a longtime.

Related Species

Wild chrysanthemum, ye hu hua
(C. indicum), has a similar use in
Chinese herbal medicine.

Many other closely related species
have an established therapeutic
value, for example tansy ( Tanacetum
vulgare, p. 274) and feverfew
(T. parthenium, p. 140).

Key Constituents

■ Alkaloids, including stachydrine

■ Volatile oil

■ Sesquiterpene lactones

■ Flavonoids, including apigenin

■ Betaine & choline

■ Vitamin B,

Ju hua

A perennial growing
to about 5 ft (1.5 m),
with flower heads
composed of yellow
ray florets.

Key Actions

■ Increases sweating

■ Antiseptic

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Cooling

■ Reduces fever

Research

■ Blood pressure A number of
Chinese and Japanese clinical trials
during the 1970s showed that ju hua
is most effective at lowering blood
pressure and relieving associated
symptoms such as headaches,
dizziness, and insomnia. In these
trials, ju hua was mixed with jin yin
hua ( Lonicera spp., p. 229).

■ Other research Ju hua has
proven to be helpful in the treatment
of angina, and to have an antibiotic
effect against a range of pathogens.

In laboratory studies, some of
the flavonoids were found to have
anti-HIV activity. Extracts of the
flowers reduce inflammation.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Long-standing remedy

Ju hua has been taken in China
as a medicine and as a beverage
for thousands of years. It was

first categorized in the Divine
Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong
Bencaojing), written in the
I st century ce.

■ Eye problems In China, the
infused flower heads are popular
as a remedy for red, sore eyes,
especially after long periods of close
work, such as reading or working at a
computer. The warm flower heads
are placed on closed eyes and then
replaced when cool. Ju hua infusion is
taken in China as a remedy to
improve eyesight.

■ Cooling & antiseptic Ju hua
infusion is used to reduce fever, to
counter infection, and to detoxify
the body. It relieves mild fevers
and tension headaches, soothes

a dry mouth or throat, and treats
bad breath.

■ Skin complaints The fresh
leaves make an antiseptic poultice for
acne, pimples, boils, and sores.

■ High blood pressure

Symptoms often associated with
high blood pressure, such as
dizziness, headaches, and tinnitus,
are treated with ju hua.

Self-help Use

■ Sore & tired eyes, p. 3 10.

SKey Preparations & Their Uses

Flower heads are gathered in late
autumn. In China, they are steamed
before drying to reduce bitterness.

O Caution May cause allergic reactions in rare cases.

Infusion of flower heads (p. 291).

For tension headaches, drink
% cup (150 ml) at hourly intervals.

Poultice (to make, p. 295). For eyestrain,
steep flower heads in hot water for 10
minutes and place them on closed eyes.

Powdered leaves For acne, mix I tsp
with 2-3 tsp water and apply to pimples.

Poultice of fresh leaves (to make, p. 295). For boils and pimples,
apply directly to the skin.

78

C / M I C I F U G A RACEMOSA

Cimicifuga racemosa syn. Actaea racemosa (Ranunculaceae)

Black Cohosh, Squaw Root

Black cohosh

An herbaceous
perennial growing to
about 8 ft (2.5 m),
with creamy-white
flower spikes.

The root of black cohosh is a Native American remedy.

It has long been used for women’s complaints, especially
painful periods and problems associated with menopause
and was used by the Penobscot peoples for kidney
troubles. It also benefits rheumatic problems, including
rheumatoid arthritis, and nerve conditions such as tinnitus
(ringing in the ears). The root has a bitter, acrid taste and a
disagreeable odor.

Black cohosh was used by Native
Americans to treat gynecological problems
and complaints such as rheumatism and
headaches.

Habitat & Cultivation

Black cohosh is native to Canada
and eastern parts of the U.S.,
growing as far south as Florida.

It prefers shady positions in woods
and hedgerows. The herb is now
grown in Europe and can be found
in the wild, having self-seeded from
cultivated plants. It is propagated
from seed and the root is
harvested in autumn.

Related Species

A number of Cimicifuga species are
used in traditional Chinese medicine,
including sheng ma (C. dahurica)
and C. foetida. They are thought to
“clear heat” and relieve toxicity,
and are used to treat asthma,
headaches, and measles, among
other conditions.

Key Constituents

■ Triterpene glycosides
(actein, cimicifugoside)

■ Isoflavones (formononetin)

■ Isoferulic acid

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Sedative

■ Antirheumatic

■ Estrogenic

■ Expectorant

Research

■ Menopause At least 10 clinical
trials have found that black cohosh
helps to relieve menopausal
symptoms. A 1995 German study
using black cohosh and St. John’s wort
found that the combination was 78%
effective in such cases.

■ Estrogenic properties It seems
black cohosh does not

contain estrogen but has an
estrogenic action within the body
due to specific hormonal effects
within the brain. It is suggested that
black cohosh may slow or prevent
the development of osteoporosis,
and it has potential in treating
polycystic ovary syndrome.

■ Safety concerns Research
strongly suggests that black cohosh
is a safe and valuable medicine.
Concerns have been raised that it
might cause liver damage or be
unsuitable for women at risk of
developing breast cancer. No effect
on liver function was found during
the clinical trials, and it is thought
that it has some preventative activity
against breast cancer.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Gynecological uses Black
cohosh has long been used by Native
Americans for women’s problems,
for which reason its folkname is
“squaw root.” It is used today for

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Do not take in pregnancy or if breastfeeding. Larger doses can
cause stomach upsets and headache.

Decoction (to make, p. 29 I).
For rheumatism, take 'A cup
(75 ml) twice a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). To relieve
period pain, add 40 drops to cup
(100 ml) water and take 3 times a day.

Tablets are made from powdered herb. Take for menopausal symptoms,
such as mood swings and hot flashes.

The active
constituents
are strongest
in mature roots

Fresh root

Dried root

E3 Parts Used

Root is unearthed
in autumn. Dried
root is most
commonly used
in herbal medicine.

period pain, menstrual problems
where estrogen levels are too
low, and for menopausal symptoms,
especially hot flashes.

■ Inflammation Black cohosh is
useful for inflammatory arthritis,
especially when it is associated
with menopause, and it also finds
use as a remedy for
rheumatic problems, including
rheumatoid arthritis.

■ Sedative properties Black
cohosh's sedative action makes it
valuable for treating many conditions,
including high blood pressure, tinnitus
(ringing in the ears), whooping cough,
and asthma.

Self-help Uses

■ Arthritis, p. 3 13.

■ Decreased estrogen &
progesterone levels, p. 3 16.

79

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

CINCHONA SPP.

80

Cinchona spp. (Rubiaceae)
Cinchona, Peruvian Bark

Cinchona is best known as the source of quinine,
which for centuries was the most widely taken
antimalarial remedy in the world. It was first
documented in Peru by a Jesuit missionary in 1633.
As well as being a remedy for malaria, the herb is
also used for fevers and digestive problems. Various
Cinchona species are used medicinally, including
C. calisaya, C. ledgeriana, and C. officinalis.

Cinchona bark has a bitter taste, and
it, or its constituent quinine, is used
to flavor tonic water.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to mountainous tropical regions
of South America, especially Peru,
cinchona is now also grown in India,
Java, and parts of Africa and is cultivated
intensively in plantations. The trees are
propagated from cuttings in late spring,
and the bark of the trunk, branches,
and root are removed from 6- to
8-year-old trees, and then dried in the
sun. The annual production of cinchona
bark has been estimated at about
8,000 tons (8,200 tonnes) a year.

Key Constituents

■ Alkaloids (up to 15%), mainly
quinoline alkaloids (quinine,
quinidine) and indole alkaloids
(cinchonamine)

■ Bitter triterpenic glycosides
(quinovin)

■ Tannins

■ Quinic acid

Key Actions

■ Bitter

■ Reduces fever

■ Antimalarial

■ Tonic

■ Stimulates the appetite

■ Antispasmodic

■ Astringent

■ Antibacterial

Research

■ Pharmacology Cinchona has
been thoroughly researched and
its pharmacological actions are
well established.

■ Quinine Quinine is both strongly
antimalarial and antibacterial. Like the
other alkaloids, it is antispasmodic.

■ Bitter Cinchona contains bitter
constituents including alkaloids and
quinovin, which produce a reflex
stimulation of the digestion as a
whole, increasing stomach secretions.

■ Quinidine Quinidine is a cardiac
depressant and is known to reduce
heart rate and improve irregularity
of heartbeat.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional remedy The

indigenous peoples of Peru have taken
cinchona for many centuries, and it
is still a well-used remedy for fevers,
digestive problems, and infections.

■ Homeopathic proving
Samuel Hahnemann, the founder
of homeopathy, prepared the first
homeopathic medicine, or proving,
from cinchona in about 1790.

■ Antimalarial Cinchona, and in
particular quinine, were the principal
remedies for malaria until the First
World War. From the 1960s,
resistance of the malarial parasite

to the synthetic drug chloroquine
led to quinine’s use once again in
preventing and treating malaria.

Cinchona

An evergreen tree
reaching 80 ft (25 m),
with reddish bark and
leaves that grow to
20 in (50 cm).

EJ Parts Used

Bark of the trunk, branches, and root contains
alkaloids, especially quinine. The bark of the
trunk is most commonly used medicinally.

Fresh bark

Dried bark

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

©Cautions Take only under professional supervision.
Do not take during pregnancy. Excessive use causes
“cinchonism,” which in extreme cases leads to coma
and death. Restricted in some countries.

Powder is used to treat malaria.

Decoction is a well-known
remedy for fevers. It is also
used as a gargle for sore throats.

\ r J

Tincture is strongly bitter
and is prescribed to
improve digestion.

Quinine is also used to treat other
acute feverish conditions.

■ Digestive stimulant As a bitter
tonic, cinchona stimulates saliva,
digestive secretions, and appetite, and
improves weak digestive function.

■ Gargle Cinchona is useful as a
gargle for sore, infected throats.

■ Muscle spasms The herb is
used in herbal medicine for cramps,
especially night cramps. It also
relieves arthritis.

■ Indian remedy In India, cinchona
is used for various conditions,
including sciatica, dysentery, and
problems with kapha (see p. 38).

CINNAMOMUM SPP.

Cinnamomum spp. (Lauraceae)

Cinnamon, Dalcini (Hindi), Rou Gui (Chinese)

Cinnamon

An evergreen tree
growing to 26-59 ft
(8-18 m), with soft,
reddish-brown bark
and yellow flowers.

One of the world’s most important spices, cinnamon
is an ancient medicine, first mentioned in the Jewish
religious text, the Torah. The bark has a long history of
use in India and Southeast Asia, and is thought to have
arrived in Egypt around 2000 bce, reaching Europe
around 500 bce. Traditionally used to treat colds, flu,
and digestive problems, cinnamon is now commonly
taken to help stabilize blood-sugar levels.

Cinnamon is now widely cultivated as a spice
and a medicine, but, traditionally, only bark
from wild trees was used medicinally.

Habitat & Cultivation

Cinnamon (C. zeylanicum ) is native
to India and Sri Lanka, growing
in tropical forests to an altitude of
1,600 ft (500 m). It is widely cultivated
throughout tropical regions, especially
in the Philippines and the Caribbean.
The tree is propagated from cuttings
and every second year; the young trees
are cut back to just above ground level.
The bark is stripped from the shoots
that emerge the following year, and
the inner layer is set out to dry in the
sun, forming the characteristic quills.

Related Species

Several species are used besides
“true” cinnamon (C. zeylanicum and
C. verum). Cassia (C. cassia), native to
China and Japan, is used as a yang tonic
(see p. 40) in Chinese herbal medicine.
Cassia is the most commonly used
species in commerce.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil up to 4%
(cinnamaldehyde 65-80%,
eugenol 5-10%)

■ Phenolics (procyanidins)

■ Coumarins (C. cassia )

■ Mucilage

Key Actions

■ Warming stimulant

■ Carminative

■ Antidiabetic

■ Antimicrobial

■ Antifungal

Research

■ Metabolic syndrome Research
suggests the bark helps to prevent and
treat type 2 (late-onset) diabetes,
increasing cells’ ability to respond to
insulin and aiding the stabilization of
blood-sugar levels. It also helps to
reduce high blood pressure and may
slightly lower cholesterol, so it could be
key to treating metabolic syndrome.

■ Other uses Similarities of the
phenolic procyanidins to grape seed
(Vitis vinifera, p. 283) and green tea
(Camellia sinensis, p. 181) indicates
cinnamon is strongly antioxidant
and aids healthy circulation. The
essential oil is sedative, analgesic,
and has marked antimicrobial and
antifungal activity. There are hints
that cinnamon helps brain health.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Ancient warming remedy

Cinnamon has always been used as
a warming herb for “cold” conditions,
often in combination with ginger
(Zingiber officinale, p. 155). The bark
stimulates circulation and blood flow
to the extremities. It has long been
used for flu symptoms, and makes an
excellent mouthwash for conditions
such as oral thrush.

ES Parts Used

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Occasionally causes allergic reaction; excessive doses may cause
low blood sugar; do not take essential oil internally.

Infusion (to make, p. 291).
For colds and flu, drink 'A cup
(100 ml) 2-3 times a day.

I Essential oil For

wasp stings, dab
on oil as often
as required.

Tincture To make, infuse the herb in alcohol (see p. 292). For flatulence,
take 20 drops with water up to 4 times a day.

Powder take up to 3 tsp a day to support stable blood-sugar levels.

■ Convalescence Cinnamon is a
gentle-acting herb that helps to
support both digestion and circulation.
It is used specifically in the treatment
of debility and in convalescence.

■ Gynecological remedy

It can help relieve period cramps
and might have a normalizing effect
on menstrual bleeding—controlling
heavy bleeding but stimulating flow
where it is light. It is valuable in the
treatment of PCOS (polycystic
ovary syndrome) as it helps to
reduce insulin levels and stabilize
estrogen levels.

■ Insulin resistance It has a
distinct role to play in promoting
better blood glucose levels and in

preventing insulin resistance—-the
impaired uptake of sugar by cells that
is a warning sign of diabetes. One
suggestion, as part of a wider regimen
for diabetes and metabolic syndrome,
is to take 3 tsp of cinnamon powder a
day for 4 months.

■ Gastrointestinal problems

It has always been used as a warming
and soothing remedy for digestion,
aiding in nausea, indigestion,
and flatulence, as well as colic and
diarrhea. Its antifungal activity means
that it can be of value in gut dysbiosis
(disordered gut bacteria).

Self-help Use

■ Colds, p. 3 I I.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

82

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Lemon

Lemon

A small, evergreen
tree growing to
about 23 ft (7 m),
with light green,
toothed leaves.

Lemon is one of the most important and versatile
natural medicines for home use. A familiar food as
well as a remedy, it has a high vitamin C content that
helps improve resistance to infection, making it valuable
for colds and flu. It is taken as a preventative for many
conditions, including stomach infections, circulatory
problems, and arteriosclerosis (thickening of the
arterial walls).

Lemons were a remedy for scurvy (caused
by lack of vitamin C) long before vitamin C
was identifed.

Habitat & Cultivation

Thought to be native to India, lemon
trees were first grown in Europe in the
2nd century ce and are now cultivated
in Mediterranean and subtropical
climates worldwide. Propagated from
seed in spring, they prefer well-drained
soil and plenty of sun. The fruit is
harvested in winter when the vitamin
C content is at its highest.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (about 2.5% of
the peel), limonene (up to
70%), alpha-terpinene, alpha-
pinene, beta-pinene, citral

■ Coumarins

■ Bioflavonoids

■ Vitamins A, B h B 2 , B 3 , and C
(40-50 mg per 100 g of fruit)

■ Mucilage

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Antirheumatic

■ Antibacterial

■ Antioxidant

■ Reduces fever

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Valuable medicine Spanish
popular medicine ascribes so many
medicinal uses to lemon that whole
books have been written about it.

■ Established properties Despite
its acid content, once digested, lemon
has an alkaline effect within the
body, making it useful in rheumatic
conditions where acidity is a
contributory factor. The volatile oil

is antiseptic and antibacterial. The
bioflavonoids are antioxidant and
strengthen the inner lining of blood
vessels, especially veins and capillaries,
and help counter varicose veins and
easy bruising.

■ Preventative Lemon is a
valuable preventative medicine.

Its antiseptic and cleansing actions
make it useful for those prone to
arteriosclerosis, and to infections
and fevers (especially of the
stomach, liver, and intestines).

Its ability to strengthen blood
vessel walls helps prevent circulatory
disorders and bleeding gums.

Lemon is also useful as a general
tonic for many chronic illnesses.
Above all, it is a food that helps
maintain general good health.

■ Strengthening vein walls The
whole fruit, especially the pith, treats
arteriosclerosis, weak capillaries, and
varicose veins.

■ Juice Lemon juice is good for
colds, flu, and chest infections.

It stimulates liver detoxification,
improves the appetite, and helps
ease stomach acidity, ulcers, arthritis,
gout, and rheumatism. As a gargle,
lemon juice is helpful for sore
throats, gingivitis, and mouth ulcers.

SI Parts Used

Fruit and peel improve
the circulation and increase

Fruit contains twice
as much vitamin C

El Key Preparations & Their Uses

Caution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional supervision.

Lemon

V / Garlic

Cinnamon

Remedy For colds, combine I tbsp lemon juice with
2/2 tbsp hot water, a crushed garlic clove, and a
pinch of cinnamon. Drink up to 3 times a day.

y

Juice For sore throats,
dilute I tbsp lemon juice
with I tbsp hot water
and use as a gargle.

Essential oil Dilute 5 drops
with I tsp carrier oil. Dab
onto mouth ulcers.

Externally, lemon juice can be
applied directly to acne, athlete’s
foot, chilblains, insect stings,
ringworm, sunburn, and warts.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Arthritis, p. 3 13.

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Chilblains, p. 302.

■ Colds & flu, p. 3 I I.

■ Cold sores, p. 304.

■ Sore throats, p. 3 I I.

■ Weak digestion, p. 306.

CODONOPSIS P I LO S U L A

Codonopsis pilosula (Campanulaceae)

Codonopsis, Dang Shen (Chinese)

Codonopsis

A twining perennial
growing to 5 ft (1.5 m),
with oval leaves and
pendulous green
and purple flowers.

Codonopsis has a central place in Chinese herbal
medicine as a gentle tonic that increases energy levels,
improves physical and mental well-being, and helps the
body adapt to stress. Codonopsis is an adaptogen similar in
action to ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118) but with a milder
and shorter-lasting effect. It is given to those who find
ginseng too strong a tonic, and is used interchangeably
with ginseng in Chinese herbal formulas.

Codonopsis bears solitary bell-shaped
flowers with purple markings
in summer.

Habitat & Cultivation

Codonopsis is native to
northeastern China and grows
throughout much of the region,
especially in the Shanxi and Szechuan
provinces. It is propagated from seed
in spring or autumn. The root is
harvested in autumn once the aerial
parts have died down.

Key Constituents

■ Sterols

■ Alkaloids

■ Terpenes

■ Polysaccharides

■ Alkanes

Key Actions

■ Adaptogen

■ Tonic

■ Anti-anemic

Research

■ Blood remedy Laboratory
experiments have demonstrated that
codonopsis increases hemoglobin
and red blood cell levels, and lowers
blood pressure.

■ Stamina Other research has
confirmed the ability of codonopsis
to help increase endurance to stress
and to maintain alertness.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Tonic herb In Chinese
herbal medicine, codonopsis
is considered to tone the qi
(vital force—see pp. 24-25), lungs,
and spleen. It improves vitality and
helps to balance metabolic function.

It is a gentle tonic remedy that helps
to revive the system as a whole.

■ Primary uses Codonopsis is
taken in particular for tired limbs,
general fatigue, and for digestive
problems such as appetite loss,
vomiting, and diarrhea. It is thought
to nourish the yin (see pp. 40-41)
of the stomach without making it
too “wet,” and at the same time to
tone the spleen without making it
too “dry.” It is beneficial in any chronic
illness where “spleen qi deficiency”

is a contributory factor.

■ False fire Perhaps most
interestingly, codonopsis is given
as a tonic to people who are
stressed and have “false fire”
symptoms, including tense neck
muscles, headaches, irritability,
and high blood pressure. Such
symptoms can be aggravated by
stronger adaptogens such as ginseng
(Panax ginseng, p. I 18), while
codonopsis is also more effective

in helping to reduce adrenaline
levels and associated stress.

■ Breastfeeding tonic The herb is
taken regularly by nursing mothers in
China to increase milk production
and as a tonic to “build strong blood.”

E9 Parts Used

Root is used in cooking or dried
for use in tinctures and decoctions.

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

Remedy Simmer 4 tsp codonopsis,
4tsp astragalus, and 2 tsp lycium berries
with 3 cups (750 ml) water for
40 minutes. Drink regularly as atonic.

Decoction (to make,
p. 291). For fatigue, drink
'A cup (75 ml) twice a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is used
in the West, but not in Chinese
herbal medicine. As atonic, take
Vi tsp with water 3 times a day.

■ Respiratory problems

Codonopsis clears excessive
mucus from the lungs, and is
useful for respiratory problems
including shortness of breath
and asthma.

Self-help Uses

■ Loss of appetite &
vomiting, p. 306.

■ Nervous exhaustion, muscle
tension, & headaches, p. 308.

■ Stress or convalescence, p. 3 19.

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KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

COLEUS F0RSKOHLI I

Coleus forskohlii syn. Plectranthus barbatus (Lamiaceae)

Coleus

Coleus

An aromatic perennial,
with tuberlike roots
and an erect stem,
reaching 2 ft (60 cm).

Native to India, coleus is used in Indian folk medicine
rather than within the Ayurvedic tradition, and is a
traditional digestive remedy, It shot to fame in Western
medical circles when one of its constituents, forskolin, was
first isolated in the 1970s. Research by an Indian/German
company showed that forskolin was a powerful medicine
for various conditions, including heart failure, glaucoma,
and bronchial asthma.

Coleus is strongly aromatic and the leaves
have a distinctive camphor-like scent.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to India, coleus grows on the
dry slopes of the Indian plains and in
the foothills of the Himalayas. It is
also found in subtropical or warm

temperate areas, including Nepal,

Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), and
parts of eastern Africa. Coleus was
popular as an ornamental in the
19th century. Today it is cultivated
on a large scale in Gujarat, India, for
use in pickles—around 980 tons
(1,000 tonnes) are harvested each
year. The plant is propagated by
stem cuttings or root division in
spring or summer and flourishes in
well-drained soil in sun or partial
shade. Both root and leaves are
harvested in autumn.

Related Species

Six other species of Coleus have
been investigated but only C. forskohlii
contains forskolin. Indian borage
(C. amboinicus) is used traditionally

within Ayurvedic and Unani Tibb
herbal medicine to help reduce
inflammation and is prescribed for
bronchitis and asthma.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil

■ Diterpenes (forskolin)

Key Actions

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Antispasmodic

■ Dilates the bronchioles
(small airways of the lungs)

■ Dilates the blood vessels

■ Heart tonic

Research

■ Forskolin The active constituent
forskolin was first isolated in the

1970s. It has important therapeutic
benefits, which include lowering high
blood pressure, relaxing smooth
muscle, increasing the release of
hormones from the thyroid gland,
stimulating digestive secretions, and
reducing pressure within the eye.

■ Whole herb Research into
coleus has focused on the action

of forskolin in isolation, and the herb
as a whole has not been researched.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional uses Coleus is a
traditional herb in India for a wide
range of digestive problems. It is
given to relieve gas, bloating, and
abdominal discomfort.

■ Circulatory remedy An
important heart and circulatory
tonic, coleus is used to treat
congestive heart failure and
poor coronary blood flow. It also
improves circulation of blood to
the brain.

■ Respiratory problems Its

antispasmodic action makes coleus
valuable for respiratory complaints,
including asthma and bronchitis.

■ Glaucoma Coleus is used
topically in treatments to relieve
glaucoma (excess pressure within
the eye, which, if untreated, can
result in loss of vision).

■ Weight loss Recently, coleus has
been marketed as a weight-loss aid.

It is argued that because coleus
stimulates cellular metabolism, it will
help to promote weight loss. There is
no evidence to support this, though

it may be of use if weight gain is due
to poor thyroid function.

Fresh leaves

Dried root

Dried leaves

E3 Parts Used

Leaves have valuable
medicinal properties and
are also eaten in pickles.

Root is unearthed in autumn
when the active constituents
are most concentrated.

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

©Cautions Do not take for circulatory problems or glaucoma
without professional advice.

Decoction of the root.

For bronchial asthma, make
a decoction with 15 g root
and 2 cups (500 ml) water
(see p. 291). Drink in small
doses over 2 days.

Infusion of the leaves
(to make, p. 29 I). To
relieve gas and bloating,
drink ^4 cup (150 ml)
twice a day.

84

COMMIPHORA M 0 LM 0 L

Commiphora molmol syn. C. myrrha (Burseraceae)

Myrrh

Myrrh has been used in perfumes, incense, and
embalming, and, as a symbol of suffering, was one of
the three gifts offered to the infant Jesus by the Three
Wise Men. Myrrh is also one of the oldest known
medicines and was extensively used by the ancient
Egyptians. It is an excellent remedy for mouth and throat
problems, with a drying, slightly bitter taste, and it is also
useful for skin problems.

Myrrh trees yield a thick, yellow resin
that has a distinct, aromatic odor.

It is used in mouthwashes.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to northeast Africa, especially
Somalia, myrrh is now also found in
Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, India, Iran, and

E9 Parts Used

Thailand. It grows in thickets and
likes well-drained soil and sun. Myrrh
is propagated from seed in spring
or from cuttings at the end of the
growing season. The resin is collected
from cut branches and is dried for use.

Related Species

A number of closely related
Commiphora species are used
interchangeably with myrrh.
Seeguggul (C. mukul, p. 193).

Key Constituents

■ Gum (30-60%), acidic
polysaccharides

■ Resin (25^0%)

■ Volatile oil (3-8%), including
heerabolene, eugenol, and
many furanosesquiterpenes

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Astringent

■ Antiparasitic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antiulcer

■ Wound healer

Research

■ Antibiotic Egyptian research
confirms that myrrh is a key treatment
for certain parasitic infections, notably
liver flukes and schistosomiasis (both
common and serious waterborne
diseases). In one clinical study, myrrh
extract cleared all signs of liver fluke
infection within 6 days, with patients
remaining clear 3 months later.

Others have been similarly
successful. It is also being studied as

a gastric ulcer remedy and for anti¬
cancer properties. The gum resin
has thyroid-stimulating activity.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Mouth & throat remedy Being
astringent and strongly antiseptic,
myrrh is a favored remedy for sore
throats, canker sores, and gingivitis
(gum disease). As myrrh is not soluble

Myrrh

A spiny, deciduous tree
growing to 16 ft (5 m),
with yellow-red flowers
and pointed fruit.

in water; tincture or essential oil is used
and diluted. The resulting mouthwash
or gargle is often swiftly effective
(though tastes very bitter). Myrrh’s
key actions also make it valuable in
countering infection throughout the
digestive tract, while at the same time
it promotes healing in inflamed areas,
notably gastric ulcers.

■ Ayurvedic remedy In Ayurvedic
medicine, myrrh is considered atonic
and aphrodisiac and to cleanse the
blood. It has a reputation for improving
intellect. Myrrh is also taken for
irregular or painful menstruation.

■ External uses Myrrh is an
underused treatment for skin
problems such as acne, boils, and
inflammatory conditions. The herb’s
drying and slightly anesthetizing effect
has led to its use in Germany as a
treatment for pressure sores caused
by prosthetic limbs.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Mouth & tongue ulcers, p. 306.

■ Canker sores & gum
problems, p. 306.

■ Oral thrush, p. 3 14.

■ Sore throats, p. 3 I I.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Gum resin oozes from fissures or
cuts in the bark of the tree and dries
into yellow-red solid pieces.

* t %
' !*•

* - if

5

*4

Dried gum resin

O Cautions Do not use in pregnancy. Do not take the essential oil internally.

Mouthwash Dilute I tsp
tincture (to make, p. 292)
with Ucup (100 ml) water
and use as a mouthwash or
for sore throats.

Capsules (to make, p. 292). For
bronchial congestion, take a
300 mg capsule twice a day.

Powder Rub a little onto
sore gums 3 times daily.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For mouth ulcers, carefully
dab on a little every hour.

Essential oil For congested
sinuses, dilute 3 drops in
I tsp carrier oil and massage
gently (see p. 297).

85

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

C 0 R Y D A L I S YANHUSUO

Corydalis yanhusuo (Papaveraceae)
Corydalis, Yan Hu Suo (Chinese)

Corydalis is an important Chinese remedy that has
been used at least since the 8th century to help
“invigorate the blood” and relieve almost any painful
condition. It is used particularly for menstrual cramps
and for chest and abdominal pain. Research in China
has confirmed the validity of corydalis’ traditional use,
revealing that it contains powerful alkaloids that are
responsible for its analgesic effect.

Corydalis is commonly prescribed
by the Chinese in formulations for
period pain.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Siberia, northern China, and
Japan, corydalis is commonly cultivated
in eastern and northeastern parts of
China. It is propagated from seed in
early spring or autumn, and the

ES Parts Used

rhizome is harvested in late spring
and early summer when the aerial
parts have withered.

Related Species

C. cavo, a related species from
southern Europe, has been shown
to provide relief from involuntary
tremors and ataxia (shaky movements).
C. goriono, native to the Himalayas, is
used in India as a detoxifying and tonic
herb for skin problems and genito¬
urinary infections. Fumitory (Fumaria
officinalis, p. 213), used to treat skin
problems, is also closely related.

Key Constituents

■ Alkaloids (including corydalis L,
corydaline, tetrahydropalmatine
[THP], protopine)

■ Protoberberine-type alkaloid
(leonticine)

Key Actions

■ Analgesic

■ Antispasmodic

■ Sedative

Research

■ Analgesic properties Research
in China from the 1950s onward has
shown that corydalis has useful pain-
relieving properties. The powdered
rhizome has up to one-tenth of the
analgesic potency of morphine—an
alkaloid derived from the opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum, p. 244).
Morphine is highly concentrated and
the strongest analgesic in medical
use. Although this research shows
corydalis to be much weaker in its
effect than morphine, it nonetheless
indicates the value of corydalis in
pain relief.

■ Alkaloids The strongest analgesic
alkaloid in corydalis is corydaline.
Tetrahydropalmatine (THP), another
alkaloid, is analgesic and sedative and
has been shown to work, at least in
part, by blocking the dopamine
receptors in the central nervous
system. This constituent is also
known to stimulate secretion of the
adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH) by the anterior pituitary
gland, which controls aspects of stress.

Corydalis

A small herbaceous
plant growing to
8 in (20 cm) with
narrow leaves and
pink flowers.

■ Menstrual pain Several clinical
trials in China have shown corydalis
to be very effective in relieving
menstrual pain.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Pain relief Corydalis is specifically
taken to treat pain, and is used in
Chinese herbal medicine to relieve
pain resulting from almost any cause.
It is rarely taken on its own, being
combined with various other herbs
as appropriate.

■ Period pain Corydalis is well
worth trying as a natural treatment
for period pain, and combines
well with cramp bark (Viburnum
opulus, p. 150).

■ Abdominal conditions Many
types of abdominal pain, whether in
the lower abdomen as in appendicitis,
or in the upper abdomen as in peptic
ulcer, are treated with corydalis.

■ Injuries In Chinese medical
theory, and in other herbal traditions,
pain is often thought to stem from
obstruction of normal blood flow.

As corydalis is thought to “invigorate
the blood,” it is considered to be
especially useful as a treatment for
the pain that results from a
traumatic injury.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Rhizome contains powerful alkaloids that research
shows help alleviate pain. It is unearthed in autumn
and dried and chopped.

O Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Powder To ease pain,
take 2 g of powder
with food twice a day.

Decoction Make a decoction with 10 g
corydalis, 3 g cinnamon, and 2 cups
(500 ml) water (see p. 29 I). For period
pain, take Vi cup (100 ml) twice a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For abdominal pain, take up to I tsp
with water twice a day.

86

CRATAEGUS OXYACANTHA

Crataegus oxyacantha & C. monogyna (Rosaceae)

Hawthorn

Hawthorn

A deciduous, thorny
tree with small leaves,
white flowers, and red
berries, growing to
26 ft (8 m).

*

Hawthorn is an extremely valuable medicinal herb. It was
known in the Middle Ages as a symbol of hope and taken
for many ailments. Today it is used mainly for heart and
circulatory disorders, in particular for angina. Western
herbalists consider it literally to be a “food for the heart,”
increasing blood flow to the heart muscles and restoring
normal heartbeat. Recent research has confirmed the
validity of these uses.

Hawthorn has bright red berries in autumn.
They are used in remedies to treat a variety
of circulatory disorders.

Habitat & Cultivation

The hawthorn tree grows
along roadsides, and in thickets and
fields throughout the British Isles
and in all temperate regions of the
northern hemisphere. It can be
propagated from seed, but it
takes 18 months to germinate,
so the trees are usually cultivated
from cuttings. The flowering tops
are harvested in late spring and
the berries in late summer to
early autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Polyphenols

■ Proanthocyanins

■ Bioflavonoids

■ Triterpenoids

■ Coumarins

■ Amines (trimethylamine—
in flowers only)

Key Actions

■ Cardiotonic

■ Circulatory tonic

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Antioxidant

Research

■ Bioflavonoids Hawthorn has
been fairly well researched. Its main
medicinal benefit is due to its high
bioflavonoid and proanthocyanin
content. These constituents relax
and dilate the arteries, especially the
coronary arteries. This increases
the flow of blood to the heart
muscles and reduces the symptoms
of angina. Both the bioflavonoids and
the proanthocyanins are also strongly
antioxidant, helping to prevent or
reduce degeneration of the

blood vessels.

■ Cardiac herb Several clinical
trials have explored hawthorn’s ability
to lower blood pressure and support
heart function, with substantially
positive findings and strong evidence
of the herb’s safety.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Historical uses Hawthorn was
traditionally used in Europe for
kidney and bladder stones, and as

a diuretic. The 16th- and 18th-century
herbals of Gerard, Culpeper, and
K’Eogh all list these uses. Its current
use for circulatory and cardiac
problems stems from an Irish physician
who started using it successfully for
such conditions toward the end of
the 19th century.

■ Heart remedy Hawthorn is used
today to treat angina and coronary
artery disease. It specifically improves
heart function and is useful for mild
congestive heart failure and irregular
heartbeat. Like many herbs,
hawthorn works in tune with the
body’s own physiological processes
and it takes time for change to occur.

E3 Parts Used

Flowering tops contain
trimethylamine, which
stimulates circulation.

Fresh
flowering
tops

Dried flowering tops

Berries help the heart
to function normally

Fresh berries

Dried berries

0 Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Interactions with prescribed medicines can occur. Seek advice from
an herbal or medical practitioner if taking prescribed medicines, especially for high
blood pressure and heart disorders.

Tincture of flowering tops or
berries is the most commonly
used preparation.

Decoction of flowering
tops is valuable for
circulatory disorders.

Tablets containing
powdered flowering
tops are convenient
for long-term use.

Infusion, made from the flowers or leaves, helps to restore
blood pressure levels to normal.

■ Blood pressure Hawthorn is
best thought of as a remedy that
normalizes blood pressure. It clearly
works to lower high blood pressure,
but also appears to support blood
pressure levels where these tend
to be low.

■ Poor memory Combined
with ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba, p. 100),
hawthorn is used to enhance poor
memory. It works by improving the
circulation of blood within the head,
thereby increasing the amount of
oxygen to the brain.

87

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KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

CRATAEVA NURVULA

88

Crataeva nurvula (Capparidaceae)

Varuna, Barun (Hindi), Three-leaved Caper

The bark of the varuna tree is an important herb for
problems affecting the kidneys and bladder, especially
kidney and bladder stones. In Ayurvedic medicine, it has
been used for around 3,000 years to treat these problems,
and, as is the case with so many herbs, recent scientific
research is confirming the appropriateness of its traditional
usage, demonstrating that it prevents the formation of
kidney stones.

Varuna is frequently cultivated in the
vicinity of temples in central India
and Bangladesh.

Habitat & Cultivation

Varuna grows throughout India and is
often found along riverbanks. Grown
from seed in spring, the leaves are
harvested in spring and the bark is
collected throughout the year.

Key Constituents

■ Triterpenes

■ Saponins

■ Flavonoids

■ Sterols

■ Alkaloids

■ Glucosilinates

Key Actions

■ Diuretic

■ Inhibits the formation
of stones

Research

■ Bladder & kidney stones

Clinical research in India from the
1980s onward indicates that varuna
increases bladder tone and inhibits
the formation of bladder stones. It
reduces the production within the
body of oxalates, substances that can

precipitate in the kidneys and bladder
to form stones. The herb also seems
to reduce the rate at which stone¬
forming constituents within the urine
are deposited in the kidneys.

■ Urinary system Indian research
in the 1980s and 1990s points to
varuna being valuable in the
treatment of urinary tract infections
and bladder problems caused by an
enlarged prostate gland. In one clinical
trial, 85% of patients with chronic
urinary tract infections were
symptom-free after undergoing

4 weeks’ treatment with varuna.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Ancient urinary remedy Texts
dating back to the 8th century bce
document varuna’s use in Ayurvedic
medicine for kidney and bladder
problems. From around I 100 ce,
varuna became the main Indian herbal
medicine for kidney stones.

■ Other traditional uses
Traditionally, varuna bark is considered
useful in Ayurveda (see p. 36-39) for
weakened conditions of voto (air) and
kapha (earth), and is used to treat
many conditions, including asthma,
bronchitis, and skin diseases. The
bark is also used to treat fevers,
gastritis, and vomiting, as well as
snake bite. The fresh leaves, bruised
and mixed with vinegar, relieve sore
and inflamed joints.

■ Kidney stones Today, varuna is
beginning to be used in the West, as
well as in India, in the prevention and
treatment of kidney stones. It is given
to people who are prone to develop
kidney stones, reducing the tendency
to stone formation. It is also prescribed

Varuna

A large deciduous
tree growing to
33 ft (10 m), with
smooth bark and
pale yellow flowers.

Dried bark

0 Parts Used

Bark contains constituents
that inhibit the formation of
kidney stones.

Leaves are

harvested in
spring and are
used in infusions.

Dried leaves

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Best taken under professional supervision.

Infusion of leaves
(to make, p. 29 I).
For painful joints,
apply as a lotion
3 times a day
(see p. 296).

Powdered bark is used in
Ayurveda. For urinary infections,
take 15 g with water daily.

Decoction of bark (to make, p. 29 I) is the most
common preparation. To prevent kidney stone
formation, take 34 cup (150 ml) once a day.

for people who already have small
stones. Varuna improves smooth
muscle tone and encourages the
removal of stones in the urine.

■ Urinary tract remedy

Combined with antiseptic and
immune-stimulating herbs, varuna

is very useful for urinary tract
infections, including cystitis. It is
also sometimes effective for bladder
conditions involving poor muscle
tone, some cases of incontinence,
and urinary problems associated
with prostate enlargement.

CROCUS S AT I V A

Crocus sativa (Iridaceae)

Saffron

Saffron

A perennial growing
to I ft (30 cm), saffron
has slender leaves and
multiple lilac to mauve
flowers.

Perhaps most familiar as an ingredient in the Spanish
dish paella, saffron is a prized herbal medicine that by
weight is more valuable than gold. The thin, deep-orange
filaments picked from the saffron flower have long¬
standing traditional use as a remedy for lowered mood,
menstrual disorders, and as a sexual tonic. Current
research is endorsing some of these findings, and
saffron clearly offers significant health benefits.

Saffron’s golden-red threads may help
to support eyesight and prevent
macular degeneration.

Habitat & Cultivation

Saffron prefers a sunny, well-drained
site. It is cultivated in Iran, which
grows roughly 90% of world
production. The stigma are collected
in the autumn when the plant is in
flower. The flowers are first cut, the
stigma then being plucked from
within. The corms (bulbs) naturally
reproduce themselves—one corm
producing five after 3 years.

Related Species

Saffron should not be confused
with meadow saffron (Colchicum
autumnale, p. 193), an important
(but toxic) medicinal plant that is
only distantly related to saffron.

Key Constituents

■ Crocins (carotenoid glucosides)

■ Volatile oil (including safranal)

■ Bitter substances

Key Actions

■ Neuroprotective

■ Antidepressant

■ Antispasmodic

■ Aphrodisiac

■ Stomach tonic

Research

■ Depression Several clinical
trials have found saffron to be
beneficial in depression. In 2005,
Iranian researchers found that
saffron was as effective as
fluoxetine (Prozac) for mild

to moderate depression. In a
different clinical trial, saffron was
shown to help relieve the symptoms
of sexual dysfunction (in both men
and women) that can sometimes
present themselves as a side effect
of taking fluoxetine.

■ Eye health Research from a
combined Italian-Australian study
suggests that saffron has a useful
role to play in helping to support
eye health in the early stages of
macular degeneration. The study
found that retinal function
improved in those taking saffron.
Other research suggests that
saffron might prove useful in
treating glaucoma.

■ Cognitive function
Saffron appears to have marked
neuroprotective activity (see
Depression and Eye health ). Iranian
clinical research has examined
saffron’s therapeutic potential in
people with moderate Alzheimer’s
disease. Though still at a very early
stage, two small studies indicate
that saffron, and particularly the
crocins within it, acts on the brain
to improve memory and cognitive
function, including in those

with dementia.

■ Adulteration Due to its high
cost, saffron is frequently adulterated.

E3 Parts Used

Stigma are the three deep
orange-red threads at the
center of the flower.

Flower head

Stigma

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take as a medicine during pregnancy
Excessive doses can be toxic.

Dried stigma For low mood, take
5 threads I -2 times a day

Capsules (to make, p. 292). For menstrual cramps, take a 300 mg capsule up to
five times a day

For medicinal purposes, good-quality
material is essential.

Traditional &

Current Uses
■ Traditional uses Avicenna,
a I Oth-century physician famous for
his Canon of Medicine, described
saffron in detail, noting that it was
an “exhilarant and cardiac tonic” that
‘‘strengthens eyesight,” ‘‘reduces
appetite,” and is ‘‘a stimulant of sexual
desire.” A rereading of the Canon
paved the way for much of the
Iranian research over recent years.
The herbalist Christopher Catton,
following the English view of saffron

as a ‘‘cordial” or heart tonic, wrote in
1862 that ‘‘Saffron hath power to
quicken the spirits, and the virtue
thereof pierceth by and by to the
heart, provoking laughter and
merriness.” It is said that rubbed into
the palm, saffron has an immediate
action on the heart.

■ Chinese herbal medicine
In Chinese medicine, saffron is used
for depression and shock. It also has
long use as a remedy for menstrual
difficulties such as period cramps
and pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS).
Saffron is also used to treat skin
disorders, stomach weakness, and
to reduce appetite.

89

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

CURCUMA LONGA

Curcuma longa syn. C. domestica (Zingiberaceae)
Turmeric, Haldi (Hindi), Jiang Huang (Chinese)

Turmeric

A perennial reaching
3 ft (90 cm), with a
short stem, lance¬
shaped leaves, and
a knobbly rhizome.

Although best known for its bright yellow color
and spicy taste in Indian food, turmeric is increasingly
recognized as a medicinal food with almost unparalleled
health benefits. Its powerful anti-inflammatory action
makes turmeric a key remedy in many chronic health
problems, including allergies, arthritis, diabetes, and
psoriasis, where long-term inflammation is usually
a major underlying factor.

Turmeric is a valuable remedy for
arthritic and skin conditions.

Habitat & Cultivation

Turmeric is native to India and
southern Asia and is now cultivated
throughout the tropics. It is propagated
by cuttings from the root, and needs
well-drained soil and a humid climate.
The rhizome is unearthed in winter.

Key Constituents

■ Curcumin

■ Volatile oil (3-5%), including
zingiberen and turmerone

■ Bitter principles

■ Resin

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Lowers cholesterol levels

■ Antimicrobial

■ Anti-platelet (blood-thinning)

Research

■ New interest in turmeric

Despite its long-standing use in India
and China, the therapeutic actions of
turmeric were not researched until
recent decades when there was an
upsurge of interest in foods and
medicines that lower cholesterol
levels or have antioxidant properties

(neutralize harmful free radicals).
Research from the 1970s onward,
mostly in India, has tended to confirm
traditional uses of the root.

■ Anti-inflammatory Research
has established that turmeric, and
curcumin in particular, blocks several
different inflammatory pathways,
countering inflammation throughout
the body. Turmeric is largely taken as
a supplement to prevent or treat
cancer, dementia, and many auto¬
immune diseases. Black pepper

is traditionally taken with turmeric
to augment its efficacy This effect
is now supported by research.

■ Curcumin When applied to the
skin and exposed to sunlight, turmeric
is strongly antibacterial. Curcumin is
the constituent responsible for this
action. Curcumin is also more strongly
antioxidant than vitamin E.

■ Cholesterol Chinese clinical trials
in 1987 indicate that turmeric lowers
cholesterol levels.

■ Cancer Turmeric may be a
valuable preventative remedy for
those at risk of developing cancer,
but more research is needed.

■ Other actions Research has
shown that turmeric has an anti¬
coagulant action, keeping the blood
thin. It also increases bile production

and flow, and has a protective action
on the stomach and liver.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional remedy Turmeric
improves the action of the liver and
is a traditional remedy for jaundice in
both Ayurvedic and Chinese herbal
medicine. It is also an ancient herb for
digestive problems such as gastritis
and acidity, helping to increase mucus
production and protect the stomach.
The herb also alleviates nausea.

■ Arthritis & allergies Even though
turmeric does not relieve pain, its anti¬
inflammatory action makes it useful
for arthritis and other inflammatory
conditions such as asthma and eczema.

■ Circulatory disorders Due to
its anti-inflammatory, blood-thinning,
and cholesterol-lowering properties,
turmeric is now used to reduce the
risk of strokes and heart attacks.

■ Skin conditions Applied to the
skin, turmeric is useful in treating

a number of conditions, including
psoriasis, and fungal infections such
as athlete’s foot.

Self-help Uses

■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304.

■ Nausea & motion sickness, p. 306.

ES Parts Used

Rhizome is carefully
unearthed and broken
into sections. It is boiled
or steamed before drying.

^Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions If taking blood-thinning medication, or if gallstones are present,
take only on professional advice. Turmeric occasionally causes skin rashes.

Fresh rhizome

Powder is the most common preparation
in Ayurvedic medicine. For gastritis, take
I tsp with water 3 times a day.

Fresh rhizome is
bright orange inside

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For eczema, take I tsp diluted with
Zi cup (100 ml) of water 3 times a day.

90

DIOSCOREA V ILLOSA

Dioscorea villosa (Dioscoreaceae)

Wild Yam, Colic Root

Wild yam is the plant source of a steroid-like substance,
diosgenin, which was the starting point in the creation
of the first contraceptive pill. There is no suggestion
that the plant was used as a contraceptive in the past,
though it has traditionally been taken in Central America
to relieve menstrual, ovarian, and labor pains. The herb
is also valuable for digestive problems, arthritis, and
muscle cramps.

Wild yam can be found growing wild in
damp woodlands in North America.

Habitat & Cultivation

Wild yam is native to North and
Central America, and has now
become naturalized in tropical,
semitropical, and temperate climates
around the world. The plant is
propagated from seed in spring, or
from sections of tubers or by root
division in spring or autumn. It thrives
in sunny conditions and rich soil. The
root and tuber of wild yam are
harvested in autumn.

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antirheumatic

■ Increases sweating

■ Diuretic

Research

■ Synthesis of hormones

Diosgenin, a breakdown product of
dioscin, was first identified by Japanese
scientists in 1936. This discovery
paved the way for the synthesis of
progesterone (one of the main female
sex hormones) and of corticosteroid
hormones such as cortisone. Wild
yam does not contain estrogen or
progesterone, and wild yam “natural
progesterone” products are derived
from chemically processed diosgenin,
and have little or no relationship with
naturally occurring wild yam.

■ Anti-cholesterol activity
Research indicates that diosgenin
reduces the absorption of cholesterol
from the gut and increases its
elimination from the body.

Related Species

Many yam species have a hormonal
action. Shan yao (Dioscorea opposita)
is an important tonic for the stomach
and digestion in traditional Chinese
medicine, and is taken for appetite
loss and wheezing.

Key Constituents

■ Steroidal saponins
(mainly dioscin)

■ Phytosterols
(beta-sitosterol)

■ Alkaloids

■ Tannins

■ Starch

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional uses Both the Maya
and the Aztec peoples used wild yam
medicinally—possibly to relieve pain.
The plant is also known as colic root
and rheumatism root in North
America, indicating its use by European
settlers for these conditions.

■ Gynecological problems
A traditional remedy for painful
periods and ovarian pain, wild yam
has estrogen-modulating activity and

is used to treat menopausal symptoms.

■ Arthritis & rheumatism
The herb’s combination of anti-

Wild yam

A deciduous perennial
vine, climbing to 20 ft
(6 m) with heart-
shaped leaves and
tiny green flowers.

E3 Parts Used

Root and tuber have valuable
antispasmodic properties. They
are used to treat colic and
menstrual cramps.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Decoction (to make, p. 291).
For irritable bowel syndrome,
take Vs cup (75 ml) twice a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For arthritis, take Vi tsp with
water twice a day.

inflammatory and antispasmodic
actions makes it extremely useful
in treatments for arthritis and
rheumatism. It reduces inflammation
and pain, and relaxes stiff muscles
in the affected area.

■ Muscle spasms & pain Wild
yam helps relieve cramps, muscle
tension, and colic.

■ Digestive problems

The herb can be used as an
effective treatment for digestive
problems, including gallbladder
inflammation, irritable bowel
syndrome, and diverticulitis.

Self-help Use

■ Period pain, p. 3 15.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

ECHINACEA SPP.

92

Echinacea spp. (Asteraceae)
Echinacea, Purple Coneflower

Echinacea

A perennial growing
to 4 ft (1.2 m) with
upright stems and
pink to purple
daisy-like flowers.

A key medicinal herb, echinacea has atonic action on
the body’s immune system. Known by 19th-century
Americans as Indian Snakeroot (due to its ability to treat
snake bites), the herb has a potent ability to counter
infection, especially viral and bacterial, and to aid the
clearance of toxins from the body. It is commonly taken
as a preventative and treatment for upper respiratory
infections such as colds, flu, and coughs.

Echinacea is a name derived from the Greek
word for hedgehog and was inspired by the
appearance of the flower’s central cone.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to central parts of the U.S.,
three species of echinacea are used
medicinally: E. angustifolia, E. purpurea ,
and £. pallida. All are threatened in
the wild and only commercially
grown plants should be used.

£. purpurea is cultivated widely in the
U.S. and Europe. Grown from seed
in spring or by root division in winter,
it thrives in rich, sandy soil. The leaves
and flowers are gathered during
flowering; the roots of 4-year-old
plants are lifted in autumn.

Key Constituents

(£. purpurea)

■ Alkylamides

(mostly isobutylamides)

■ Caffeic acid esters (mainly
echinacoside and cynarin)

■ Polysaccharides

Key Actions

■ Immune modulator

■ Antimicrobial

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Detoxifying

■ Heals wounds

■ Stimulates saliva

Research

■ Immune system Clinical research
into echinacea has confirmed that it
increases the number of white blood
cells and their strength of action,
although its precise mode of
action on immune function is not well
understood. The polysaccharides
inhibit the ability of viruses to take
over cells, while the alkylamides are
antibacterial and antifungal. Research
supports the use of echinacea to
prevent colds and respiratory
infections resulting from air travel. Not
all clinical trials have found positive
effects, possibly because in some cases
too low a dose of echinacea was used.

Traditional &

Current uses

■ Native American medicine The

Comanche used echinacea as
a remedy for toothache and sore
throats and the Sioux took it for rabies,
snake bite, and septic conditions.

■ Western uses Echinacea is a key
remedy in Western herbal medicine,
and is used to treat many health
problems, notably viral and fungal
infections, and skin infections such as
acne and boils. It makes an excellent
gargle for throat infections, and is
typically prescribed by herbalists
whereverthe immune system

is underperforming.

■ Allergies The herb is a helpful
remedy for treating allergies such
as asthma.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

Roots of all three
species have valuable
immune-stimulating
properties.

Fresh £. purpurea root

0 Parts Used

Flower of £. purpurea
is occasionally used
for infections.

The best-quality
root leaves a
tingling sensation
on the tongue

Dried root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Can cause allergic reactions in rare cases.

Tincture of root (to make,
p. 292). For chronic infections,
take Vi tsp in water 3 times a day.

Decoction of root (to make,
p. 29 I). To treat throat infections,
gargle with 2 Vi tbsp 3 times a day.

Capsules of powdered root
(to make, p. 292). For colds, take
a 500 mg capsule 3 times a day.

Tablets Take as an immunostimulant for infections.

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Chilblains, p. 302.

■ Cold sores, p. 304.

■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 3 10.

■ Earache, p. 3 12.

■ Flu, sore throats & tonsillitis, p. 3 I I.

■ Canker sores, p. 306.

Urinary & fungal infections, p. 3 14.

ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Cardamom, Eiaci (Hindi)

Cardamom is one of the oldest spices in the world
and was used extensively in ancient Egypt to make
perfumes. Its medicinal uses, however, are less well
known. Cardamom has been employed in Ayurvedic
medicine for thousands of years, and is an excellent
remedy for many digestive problems, helping to soothe
indigestion and gas. It has an aromatic and pungent taste
and combines well with other herbs.

Cardamom seed pods are harvested by
hand. Each pod contains up to 20 aromatic,
dark red-brown seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation

Cardamom is native to southern
India and Sri Lanka, where it grows
profusely in forests at 2,600-4,900 ft
(800-1,500 m) above sea level. It is
also widely cultivated in India, southern
Asia, Indonesia, and Guatemala.
Cardamom is propagated from
seed in autumn or by root division
in spring and summer, and needs a
shady position and rich and moist, but
well-drained soil. The seed pods are
harvested just before they start to open
in dry weather during the autumn
and are dried whole in the sun.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil

■ Alkaloids

■ Flavonoids

■ Saponins

■ Sterols

Key Actions

■ Digestive tonic

■ Protects liver

■ Mild stimulant

■ Antispasmodic

Research

■ Antispasmodic A 2009 Indian
clinical study found that cardamom
successfully lowered blood pressure
in 20 adults over a 3-month period.
Those taking part in the trial had “a
feeling of well-being without any
side-effects.” The herb has a long-
established antispasmodic action.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Ancient herb Cardamom has
been highly valued both as a spice and
a medicine and was known in Greece
in the 4th century bce.

■ Digestive problems Throughout
history, cardamom has been used

for the relief of digestive problems,
especially indigestion, gas, cramping,
and irritable bowel syndrome. The
seed’s pleasant taste means that
cardamom is often added to digestive
remedies to improve their flavor

■ Current Indian uses Cardamom
is used in India for many conditions,
including asthma, bronchitis, kidney
stones, anorexia, debility, and
weakened voto (see p. 37).

■ Chinese remedy In China, the
herb is taken for urinary incontinence
and as atonic.

■ Bad breath Cardamom is an
effective treatment for bad breath,
and when taken with garlic helps to
reduce its smell.

■ Aphrodisiac The herb contains
androgenic compounds and has a
long-standing reputation as atonic and
aphrodisiac. A traditional Arabian
recipe blends cardamom with coffee.

Self-help Use

■ Gas & bloating, p. 306.

Cardamom

A perennial growing
to I 6 ft (5 m), with
mauve marked, white
flowers and very long,
lance-shaped leaves.

E3 Parts Used

Seeds are crushed for use in infusions
or have their volatile oil extracted.

Green seed pods
indicate that the
seeds are good quality

Seed pods

1

Opened seed pods

Crushed seeds
and seed pods

Fresh seed pods
on stem

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Do not take the essential oil internally.

1

il

Essential oil For

digestive pain, dilute
10 drops with 4 tsp
carrier oil (see
p. 297). Gently rub
into the abdomen.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I)
is a pleasant drink. For
indigestion, drink 3 A cup
(150 ml) after meals.

Crush cardamom seeds
using a mortar and pestle
just before you are about
to use them.

Tincture (to make, p. 292)
improves the appetite. For
poor appetite, combine
5 drops with 15 drops
gentian tincture and take
3 times a day.

93

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

E L E U T H E R 0 C 0 C C U S SENTICOSUS

Eleutherococcus senticosus (Araliaceae)

Siberian Ginseng, Eleuthero

Siberian ginseng is a powerful tonic herb with an impressive
range of health benefits. Unlike many plant medicines,
Siberian ginseng is generally more useful in maintaining
good health than in treating ill health. Research shows that
extracts aid the body in coping with both physical and mental
stress, including overwork and extreme cold or heat, and
the herb is taken to support performance during periods
of ongoing pressure or stress.

Habitat & Cultivation

Siberian ginseng is native to eastern
Russia, China, Korea, and Japan. It
can be grown from seed, but it is a
difficult plant to germinate. The root
is lifted in autumn and dried.

Related Species

W u jia pi (Acanthopanocis gracilistylus)
is a very close relative of Siberian
ginseng, used in Chinese herbal
medicine to treat “cold, damp”
conditions.

Key Constituents

■ Eleutherosides, 0.6-0.9%

■ Polysaccharides

ES Parts Used

Siberian ginseng can help those exposed
to toxic chemicals and radiation and was
given to people following the nuclear
disaster at Chernobyl in 1986.

Siberian ginseng

A deciduous, hardy
shrub, growing
to 10 ft (3 m). It has
3 -7 toothed leaflets
on each stem.

■ Triterpenoid saponins

■ Glycans

Key Actions

■ Adaptogenic

■ Tonic

■ Protects the immune system

Research

■ Russian studies There has been
much research into Siberian ginseng
in Russia since the 1950s, although
the exact method by which it
stimulates stamina and resistance to
stress is not yet understood.

■ Tonic herb Siberian ginseng
appears to have a general tonic
effect on the body, in particular
on the adrenal glands, helping
the body to withstand heat, cold,
infection, other physical stresses,
and radiation. It has even been given
to astronauts to counter the effects
of weightlessness.

■ Stamina Athletes have
experienced as much as a 9%
improvement in stamina when
taking Siberian ginseng.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Enhancing resilience Siberian
ginseng is taken to improve mental
resilience, such as in preparation for
tests, and to reduce the impact

of physical training and stress on
the body.

■ Exhaustion Siberian ginseng
can be highly beneficial in relieving
exhaustion and debilitated states
resulting from overwork or long¬
term stress. It can also prove
helpful in treating chronic fatigue,
although in some cases it may be
overly stimulating.

■ Cancer treatment A valuable
remedy during conventional cancer
treatment, Siberian ginseng supports
vitality and healthy function when
taking chemotherapy, and may
reduce side effects. Russian studies
suggest that it helps to reduce the
harmful effects of radiation.

Self-help Uses

■ Convalescence, p. 3 19.

■ Stress, p. 308.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Root is unearthed in autumn, dried whole, and
then chopped up for use in medicinal preparations.

O Cautions Healthy young adults should not take for more than 6 weeks.
Can be taken longterm on professional advice. Avoid caffeine when taking
Siberian ginseng. Side effects are rare, but more likely if the standard dose
is exceeded.

Decoction (to make, p. 291).
Take 2 tbsp twice a day as
a general tonic.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
During busy periods, take ]4 tsp
with water 3 times a day.

Capsules Make with powder
(see p. 292) and for long-term
stress take I g of capsules daily.

Tablets are a convenient way of taking Siberian ginseng.
Use before tests or other stressful events.

EPHEDRA SINICA

Ephedra sinica (Ephedraceae)

Ephedra, Ma Huang (Chinese)

Ephedra is a strongly stimulant, acrid-tasting herb that
has a central place in Chinese and other herbal traditions.
According to legend, the bodyguards of Genghis Khan,
threatened with beheading if they fell asleep on sentry
duty, used to take a tea containing ephedra to stay
alert. Today, ephedra is used in the West and in China
for problems ranging from chills and fevers to asthma
and hay fever.

N\a Huang was found in a Middle Eastern
neolithic grave, indicating that it may have
been used as a medicine 60,000 years ago.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to northern China and Inner
Mongolia, ephedra often grows in
desert areas. It is propagated from
seed in autumn or by root division
in autumn or spring and needs
well-drained soil. The stems
are gathered throughout the year
and dried.

Related Species

Other Ephedra species with similar
medicinal propertiesto ephedra
grow throughout the northern
hemisphere. In North America,
related species were used to treat
fevers and relieve kidney pain,
while in India, Ephedra species
were taken for asthma, hay fever,
and rheumatism.

Key Constituents

■ Protoalkaloids (ephedrine,
pseudoephedrine)

■ Tannins

■ Saponin

■ Flavone

■ Volatile oil

Key Actions

■ Increases sweating

■ Dilates the bronchioles
(small airways in the lungs)

■ Dries mucous membranes

■ Diuretic

■ Stimulant

■ Raises blood pressure

Research

■ Active constituents Most
of the active constituents mimic
the effect of adrenaline within the
body, increasing alertness. Ephedrine,
extracted originally from ephedra,
was first synthesized in 1927 and

is used as a decongestant and
antiasthmatic.

■ Whole herb When used at
the correct dosage, the whole herb
has significant therapeutic effects—
including dilating the bronchial
airways—and a very low incidence
of side effects.

■ Ephedra abuse ephedra
has been banned in the U.S. due
to frequent abuse of the herb, as
an amphetamine-type “high” and,
at excessive dosage, in weight-loss
regimens. At therapeutic dosage, and
with professional guidance, ephedra
rarely gives rise to side effects.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Historical uses Traditionally, Zen
monks used ephedra to promote
calm concentration during meditation.

■ Chinese herb In China, ephedra

is popular for chills and fevers, coughs
and wheezing, and in combination
with rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa,
p. 125) it is given to treat kidney yin
deficiency (see pp. 40-41).

Ephedra

An evergreen shrub
growing to 20 in
(50 cm), with long,
narrow sprawling
stems and tiny leaves.

Parts Used

Stems are collected
throughout the year.
Mo Huong is best
known in medicine
for the ephedrine
that it contains.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

©Cautions Take only under professional supervision. Do not take if suffering from
angina, glaucoma, high blood pressure, enlarged prostate gland, or overactive
thyroid gland. Ephedra occasionally causes side effects, including headaches, tremors,
and insomnia. Restricted herb in some countries.

X

Decoction is prescribed
by herbalists for asthma.

Powder is used
by the Chinese
to treat kidney
energy deficiency.

Tincture is used in
treatments to alleviate
the aches and pains
of rheumatism.

■ Current Western uses

Ephedra is used principally in
current Western herbal medicine as
a treatment for asthma and hay fever,

and for the acute onset of colds
and flu. It also helps to raise blood
pressure, cool fevers, and to
alleviate rheumatism.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Eucalyptus, Blue Gum

Eucalyptus, a traditional Aboriginal remedy, is a powerful
antiseptic used all over the world for relieving coughs
and colds, sore throats, and other infections. It is warming
and stimulating, and for many people its scent conjures
up days spent in bed during childhood with eucalyptus
and other oils smothered on the chest Eucalpytus
is a common ingredient in many over-the-counter
cold remedies.

Eucalyptus was first introduced to the
West from Australia in the 19th century.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Australia, eucalyptus is
cultivated in plantations in tropical,
subtropical, and temperate areas
of the world. Planting can cause
ecological problems because the
trees absorb huge quantities of
water and prevent the growth of
native plants. This can be beneficial,
however, drying up marshy areas and
so reducing the risk of malaria. The
leaves are harvested as required and
are either dried or distilled for oil.

Related Species

Many other Eucalyptus species
contain valuable essential oils,
including E. smithii (p. 207).

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (cineole, up to 80%)

■ Flavonoids

■ Tannins

■ Resin

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Analgesic

■ Expectorant

■ Stimulates local blood flow

■ Insect repellent

Research

■ Essential oil Extensive research
into eucalyptus essential oil during the
last 50 years has shown it to have a
marked antiseptic action and the
ability to dilate the bronchioles (small
airways) of the lungs. The action of the
essential oil as a whole is stronger than
that of its main constituent, cineole.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Infections Eucalyptus is a traditional
Aboriginal remedy for infections and
fevers. It is now used throughout the
world for these ailments.

■ Antiseptic The herb is an
antiseptic and is very helpful for
colds, flu, and sore throats.

■ Expectorant Eucalyptus is a
strong expectorant, suitable for
chest infections, including bronchitis
and pneumonia.

■ Warming The diluted essential
oil, applied to the skin as a chest or
sinus rub, has a warming and slightly
anesthetic effect, helping to relieve
respiratory infections. The same
effect occurs when the infusion

or tincture is used as a gargle.

■ Pain relief Diluted essential
oil applied to the affected area
can help relieve rheumatic joints
characterized by aching pains and
stiffness, as well as neuralgia and
some bacterial skin infections.

Self-help Uses

■ Congestion, sinus problems,

& earache, p. 3 12.

■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 3 10.

Eucalyptus

An evergreen tree
growing to 195 ft
(60 m), with a
blue-grey trunk
and green leaves.

0 Parts Used

Leaves, which contain
antiseptic chemicals, are
either dried or used
for essential oil.

Fresh leaves
are distilled
to produce the
essential oil

Dried leaves

Fresh leaves

1

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional
supervision. Do not give to small children or infants.

Inhalation For colds, add

Capsules, (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis, 10 drops essential oil to

take a 200 mg capsule 3 times a day. boiling water (p. 297).

Essential oil (to use, p. 297). Use 5 drops diluted with 2 tsp carrier oil
as a chest or sinus rub.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I). Drink I cup (150 ml) 3 times a day for bronchitis.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For chest coughs, add Fi tsp tincture to
Zi cup (100 ml) water and take twice a day.

EUGENIA CA RYO P H Y LLATA

Eugenia caryophyllata syn. Syzgium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Clove

Clove tree

An evergreen,
pyramid-shaped tree
growing to 49 ft
(15 m). The tree is
strongly aromatic.

Cloves, the dried flower buds of the clove tree, are
best known as a spice, but are also highly valued as an
herbal medicine, particularly in India and Southeast
Asia. Native to the Molucca Islands, cloves were one
of the earliest spices to be traded and were imported
into Alexandria in 1 76 ce. The cloves contain the best
essential oil, but the stems and leaves of the tree can
also be distilled for their oil.

Cloves are pink when unripe, but later
turn brown when they are dried outside
in the sun.

Habitat & Cultivation

Originally from the Molucca Islands
(Indonesia) and the southern
Philippines, cloves are now grown
extensively in Tanzania and
Madagascar, and to a lesser extent
in the West Indies and Brazil. The
tree is grown from seed in spring or
from semi-ripe cuttings in summer.
Twice a year, the unopened flower
buds are picked as they develop,
and then sun-dried.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil containing eugenol
(up to 85%), acetyl eugenol,
methyl salicylate, pinene, vanillin

■ Gum

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Carminative

■ Stimulant

■ Analgesic

■ Prevents vomiting

■ Antispasmodic

■ Eliminates parasites

Research

■ Volatile oil Argentinian research
in 1994 showed clove’s volatile oil
to be strongly antibacterial. Eugenol
(a phenol) is the largest and most
important component of the volatile
oil. It is strongly anesthetic and
antiseptic, and therefore useful in
pain relief for toothache, and as

an antiseptic for many conditions.

■ Acetyl eugenol Acetyl eugenol,
another component of the volatile
oil, has been shown to be strongly
antispasmodic.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Ancient all-purpose remedy

Cloves have been used in Southeast
Asia for thousands of years and were
regarded as a panacea for almost all ills.

■ Antiseptic The antiseptic property
of cloves makes them useful for
treating certain viral conditions. In
tropical Asia, they have often been
given to treat infections such as
malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis,
and parasites such as scabies.

■ Antispasmodic Digestive
discomfort, such as gas, colic,
and abdominal bloating, can be
relieved with cloves. Their anti¬
spasmodic property also eases
coughs and, applied topically
relieves muscle spasms.

■ Mind & body stimulant Cloves
are a stimulant, both to the mind
(improving memory) and to the
body as a whole, and have been
used as an aphrodisiac in India and

in the West. The herb has also
been used to prepare for childbirth.

It helps stimulate and strengthen
uterine muscle contractions in labor.

E3 Parts Used

Flower buds are

picked unopened
and dried for use in
infusions or powders
and for oil extraction.

Leaves and
stems are
occasionally
used for oil
extraction

Dried flower
buds (cloves)

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions External use can cause dermatitis. Do not take essential oil internally
except under professional supervision.

Infusion For colic, infuse 2 cloves
in I cup (150 ml) of water (see
p. 291). Take 3 times daily.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For flatulence, take 20 drops
with water 3 times a day.

Essential oil For toothache, dab 1-2 drops of oil
onto cotton wool and rub over the affected tooth.

■ Additional uses Besides all their
other uses, cloves can be used to
treat acne, skin ulcers, sores, and
styes. They also make a potent
mosquito and clothes moth repellent.
Oranges that had been studded with
cloves were used in the Moluccas as
insect repellents.

■ Western herbalism Despite the
bewildering variety of their therapeutic
uses, cloves are underrated in the

West. They are used regularly only
in mouthwashes, and for their local
anesthetic effect, for example in
relieving toothache.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Fever, p. 3 I I.

■ Fungal skin infections, p. 304.

■ Neuralgia, p. 308.

■ Toothache, p. 308.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

FILIPENDULA U LM A Rl A

98

Filipendula ulmorio (Rosaceae)

Meadowsweet, Queen of the Meadow

Meadowsweet

A perennial reaching
5 ft (1.5 m), with
toothed leaves and
clusters of creamy,
scented flowers.

In medieval times, meadowsweet was a favorite
strewing herb—Gerard wrote in his Herball (1597)
that “the smell thereof makes the heart merry and
joyful and delighteth the senses.” Salicylic acid
isolated from the plant was first synthesized in
1860 and later used to develop aspirin. Nowadays,
meadowsweet is taken for gastric problems and
inflammatory conditions, such as arthritis.

Meadowsweet was called “meadwort”
in the Middle Ages, as it was used to
flavor mead.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Europe, meadowsweet
grows easily in damp places, preferring
ditches and the banks of streams and
rivers. It seeds itself freely but can
also be propagated by root division
in autumn or spring. Leaves and
flowering tops are harvested in
summer when the flowers open.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonol glycosides
(approximately 1%), mainly
glycosides of quercetin

■ Phenolic glycosides (salicylates)

■ Volatile oil (salicylaldehyde)

■ Polyphenols (tannins)

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antirheumatic

■ Astringent

■ Diuretic

■ Stimulates sweating

Research

■ Salicylates The salicylates are
aspirin-type substances that help to

reduce inflammation and
relieve pain, for example in arthritic
conditions. However, they do not
have the blood-thinning properties
of aspirin.

■ Protective combination

Unlike aspirin, which at high doses
causes gastric ulceration, the
combination of salicylates, tannins,
and other constituents acts to
protect the lining of the stomach
and intestines, while providing the
anti-inflammatory benefit of the
salicylates. Meadowsweet clearly
illustrates the fact that herbal
medicines cannot be understood
by considering their constituents
in isolation.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Acid indigestion The herb

is a key remedy for acid indigestion
and gastroesophageal reflux,
and can quickly help to improve
troubled digestions. Its mode of
action is not well understood,
though its anti-inflammatory action
is clearly important.

■ Arthritis Meadowsweet is
commonly taken as a remedy for
rheumatic and arthritic problems
such as osteoarthritis, gout,
lumbago, and sciatica. It is a mild
diuretic and is thought to help the
kidneys to clear acid residues from
the body thereby relieving joint
inflammation, which is often
associated with acidity.

■ Digestive remedy
Meadowsweet is a safe remedy for
diarrhea, even in children, and is
used with other herbs for irritable
bowel syndrome.

0 Parts Used

Fresh flowering
tops and leaves

Dried flowering tops
and leaves

Creamy white
flowers smell
of almonds

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

Flowering tops and leaves

contain salicylates that reduce
inflammation. They are harvested
in summer.

O Caution Do not take if allergic to aspirin.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).

For painful joints, soak a pad in 5 tsp
(25 ml) tincture and apply to the area.

Tablets Take for
rheumatic aches.

Infusion Make by adding freshly boiled water
to the herb (see p. 291). For indigestion, take
Vi cup (100 ml) every 2 hours.

Decoction (to make, p. 291). For diarrhea, take 3 A cup (150 ml) 2-3 times a day.
Powder For acidity, take Vi tsp mixed with a little water 3 times a day.

■ Other uses Meadowsweet has
traditionally been taken in much the
same way as aspirin—to ease the
pain and discomfort of headache,
colds and flu, and toothache.

Self-help Uses

■ Acidity with gastritis, p. 307.

■ Arthritis associated with acid
indigestion or a peptic ulcer, p. 3 13.

■ Heartburn, p. 3 17.

G E N TI A N A LU T E A

Gentiana lutea (Gentianaceae)

Gentian

Gentian is a powerful bitter, and the herb is an essential
ingredient of traditional aperitifs and bitters such as
Angostura bitters. The customary aperitif about half
an hour before a meal is more than a social nicety—
the bitter constituents stimulate gastric juices and
prime the stomach, enabling it to cope effectively with
a heavy meal. Medicinally, gentian strengthens a weak
or underactive digestive system.

Gentian is a tall, attractive plant and has
been cultivated in gardens at least since the
time of the 16th-century herbalist Gerard.

Key Actions

■ Bitter

■ Digestive stimulant

■ Eases stomach pain

Research

■ Amarogentin Although present
in much smaller quantities than
gentiopicroside, amarogentin is the
constituent largely responsible for
the bitterness of gentian. It is 3,000
times more bitter than gentiopicroside,
and, tasted at dilutions of 1:50,000, it
is possibly the most bitter substance
on the planet.

Gentian

An erect perennial
growing to 4 ft (1.2 m),
with star-shaped
yellow flowers and
oval leaves.

Fresh root

Dried chopped root

E3 Parts Used

Root is harvested
in autumn for
use in remedies
to improve
digestion.

Root contains
bitter principles

Habitat & Cultivation

This largest member of the diverse
gentian family is native to the Alps and
other mountainous regions of central
and southern Europe from Spain to
the Balkans, flourishing at altitudes
of 2,300-7,900 ft (700-2,400 m).

The large root crowns can be split or
the plant grown from seed. Due to
overharvesting from the wild, this is
now a threatened species, so buy only
cultivated root. It needs a loamy soil
and a sheltered site. The root is dug
up in early autumn and dried.

Related Species

Many gentian species are bitter-tasting
plants and a number are used in herbal
medicine as a result, for example
Japanese gentian (G. scabra ) and the
Chinese qin jiao (G. macrophylla).

Key Constituents

■ Bitter principles
(gentiopicroside, amarogentin)

■ Gentianose

■ Inulin

■ Phenolic acids

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Origin of the name Gentius,
king of Illyria in the 2nd century bce,
reputedly discovered the virtues of
the plant. The name gentian attests
to its use in classical times.

■ Action of bitter principles
There are 4 main taste receptors
on the tongue: sweet, sour, salty,
and bitter. It has been shown that
the bitter principles in gentian
stimulate the bitter taste receptors
on the tongue, causing an increase
in the production of saliva and
gastric secretions. This in turn
stimulates the appetite and improves
the action of the digestive system
in general.

■ Digestive stimulant By

stimulating the action of the stomach,
many symptoms associated with
weak digestion, such as gas,
indigestion, and poor appetite,
are relieved. Stomach and other
secretions are improved, which in
turn helps increase the absorption
of nutrients. The herb also acts as a

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Caution Do not take if suffering from acid indigestion or a peptic ulcer.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For
poor appetite, take 2-5 drops
with water before meals.

stimulant on the gallbladder and liver,
encouraging them to function more
efficiently. Gentian is therefore useful
in almost any condition where the
digestive system needs to be toned
up. It is often taken as a digestive tonic
in old age.

■ Nutrient absorption

By improving digestive function,
gentian increases the absorption of
nutrients across the gut wall. It aids
the absorption of a wide range of

Decoction (to make, p. 291).

For anemia and weakened digestion,
take 5 tsp 3-5 times a day.

nutrients, including iron and vitamin
B| 2 , and is therefore useful for iron-
deficiency anemia (usually resulting
from blood loss). It is often added to
prescriptions for women with heavy
menstrual bleeding.

Self-help Uses

■ Anemia, p. 301.

■ Fever, p. 3 I I.

■ Weakened digestion, p. 3 19.

■ Gas & bloating, p. 306.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

GINKGO BILO BA

100

Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae)

Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree, Bai Guo (Chinese)

Ginkgo

A deciduous tree with
one or several main
trunks and spreading
branches. It grows to
100 ft (30 m).

Ginkgo is thought to be the oldest tree on the planet,
first growing about 190 million years ago. Though long
used as a medicine in its native China, its therapeutic
actions have only recently been researched. The leaves
(and their extract) are used to treat poor circulation and
to maintain a plentiful blood flow to the central nervous
system. Ginkgo is also valuable for asthma and other
allergic problems.

Ginkgo trees are widely cultivated for
their leaves, which are an excellent herbal
remedy for poor circulation and asthma.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to China, ginkgo trees are
grown in large-scale plantations in
China, France, and in South Carolina
in the U.S. They produce green
to yellow fan-shaped leaves with
radiating veins, and round fruits
about 3 cm (I in) across. Leaves
and fruit are harvested in autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonoids

■ Ginkgolides

■ Bilobalides

Key Actions

■ Circulatory tonic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Anti-asthmatic

■ Anti-allergenic

■ Antispasmodic

Research

■ Clinical trials Extensive research
since the 1960s has established the
importance of ginkgo in improving
poor cerebral circulation and aiding
memory and concentration.

Several clinical trials have found that
gingko proved useful as a treatment
for dementia, including Alzheimer’s
disease, although some studies have
found no positive benefit. Other
research indicates possible use in
conditions as varied as depression,
glaucoma, and poor peripheral
arterial blood flow.

■ Anti-inflammatory action
Ginkgo’s ability to reduce
inflammation makes it valuable

in conditions where nerve tissue
is damaged by inflammation, for
example multiple sclerosis.

■ Platelet activating factor
(PAF) Ginkgo inhibits PAF a
substance released by a range
of blood cells that causes the
blood to become stickier and
more likely to produce clots.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Chinese herbal medicine

Ginkgo seeds are used to
relieve wheezing and to lessen
phlegm. They are also given to
treat vaginal discharge, a weak
bladder, and incontinence. The
leaves are traditionally used for
treating asthma.

■ Western herbal medicine

Western interest in ginkgo has
concentrated on the remarkable
ability of the leaves to improve
the circulation, especially poor
circulation to the brain, and the
herb’s antiallergenic and anti¬
inflammatory actions, which make
it a particularly useful herbal remedy
for the treatment of asthma. Ginkgo
is a bestselling herbal medicine in
France and Germany, where it is

0 Parts Used

Leaves improve the circulation.
They are used to make tinctures
tablets, and fluid extract

The husk of the
ginkgo seed is
removed before use

Dried leaves

Seeds are prescribed by the
Chinese for urinary problems
and wheezing.

Seeds

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not exceed the dose. May cause toxic reactions if taken to excess.
Take on professional advice if using blood-thinning medication. Restricted herb in
some countries.

p. 292). For poor circulation, take Tablets Take for poor

I tsp 2-3 times a day with water. circulation and memory loss.

Decoction of the seeds is used by herbalists to treat wheezing.

Fluid extract made from the fresh leaves is prescribed by medical herbalists
for asthma.

taken daily by millions of people from
middle age onward to maintain and
improve cerebral circulation and the
memory, and to reduce the possibility
of a stroke. It is also a valuable
medicine to take after a stroke,
where it is thought to support

nerve tissue and strengthen
the circulation.

Self-help Uses

■ Failing memory, p. 3 19.

■ High blood pressure &
arteriosclerosis, p. 301.

GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA

Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae)

Licorice

With a constituent—glycyrrhizic acid—-that is 50 times
sweeter than sugar, it is not surprisingthat licorice is mainly
thought of as a candy. Yet it is also one of the most
valuable of all herbal medicines, a powerful anti¬
inflammatory that is effective in conditions as varied
as arthritis and canker sores. It is among the most
used herbs in European medicine, and has been
taken medicinally for several thousand years.

Licorice has pealike flowers in summer.
It is cultivated commercially for its roots.

Habitat & Cultivation

Licorice grows wild in southeastern
Europe and southwestern Asia, but it
is now extensively cultivated. It is
propagated by dividing the roots in
autumn or spring. The root of
3-4-year-old plants is unearthed in
late autumn.

Related Species

Various Glycyrrhiza species are
used medicinally in a similar way
to licorice, for example the
Chinese gan cao ( G. uralensis).

Key Constituents

■ Triterpene saponins
(glycyrrhizin, up to 6%)

■ Isoflavones (liquiritin,
isoliquiritin, formononetin)

■ Polysaccharides

■ Phytosterols

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Expectorant

■ Demulcent

■ Adrenal agent

■ Mild laxative

Research

■ Adrenal agent Research
shows that on being broken down
in the gut, glycyrrhizin has an anti¬
inflammatory and antiarthritic
action similar to hydrocortisone and
other corticosteroid hormones. It
stimulates production of hormones
by the adrenal glands and reduces
the breakdown of steroids by the
liver and kidneys.

■ Glycyrrhizin Research in Japan

in 1985 showed that glycyrrhizin was
effective in the treatment of chronic
hepatitis and liver cirrhosis.

■ Protective mucus Licorice as

a whole reduces stomach secretions
but produces a thick protective
mucus for the lining of the stomach,
making it a useful remedy in
inflammatory stomach conditions.

■ Isoflavones The isoflavones are
known to be estrogenic. Licorice

is often used to treat menopausal
symptoms, including hot flashes.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional uses Licorice has
long been valued for its medicinal
uses. It was taken in ancient Greece
for asthma, chest problems, and
canker sores.

■ Soothing herb Inflammatory
conditions of the digestive system
such as canker sores, gastritis,
peptic ulceration, and excessive
acid problems benefit from licorices
demulcent and anti-inflammatory
properties, as do many chest
complaints, arthritis, inflamed
joints, and some skin problems.
Licorice is also soothing for
inflamed eyes.

Licorice

A woody-stemmed
perennial growing to
6 Vi ft (2 m), with dark
leaves and cream to
mauve flowers.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Excessive doses can cause serious side effects, including high blood
pressure. Do not take large doses with high blood pressure. During pregnancy, or for
long-term use, take on professional advice.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). Dried juice stick

For gastritis, add T tsp to V% cup Chew for indigestion.
(100 ml) water and take twice a day.

Powder

Gently rub onto
canker sores.

Decoction For constipation, make a decoction (see p. 29 I) with
I part licorice and 3 parts dandelion root. Drink % cup (150 ml) twice a day.

Fluid extract is prescribed for peptic ulcers.

■ Adrenal stimulation

Self-help Uses

Licorice stimulates the adrenal glands,

■ Constipation, p. 307.

helping in Addison’s disease, where

■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 3 10.

the adrenal glands cease to function

i Loss of appetite

normally.

& vomiting, p. 306.

■ Constipation Licorice is useful as

m Canker sores, p. 306.

a gentle laxative.

■ Oral thrush, p. 3 14.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

102

HAMAMELIS V I R G I N I A N A

Hamamelis virginiana (Hamamelidaceae)

Witch Hazel

Witch hazel

A small deciduous
tree growing to 16 ft
(5 m), with coarsely
toothed, broadly
oval leaves.

Witch hazel was a traditional remedy of many Native
North American peoples. They used poultices soaked
in a decoction of bark to treat tumors and inflammations,
especially of the eye, and took the herb internally for
hemorrhaging and heavy menstrual bleeding. European
settlers in the 18th century soon came to value witch
hazel for its astringency, and its use spread to Europe
and beyond.

Witch hazel produces distinctive flowers in
winter followed by brown fruit capsules that,
when ripe, eject 2 seeds up to 13 ft (4 m)
away from the tree.

Habitat & Cultivation

Witch hazel is a woodland tree,
indigenous to Canada and eastern
parts of the U.S. Today it is
commonly cultivated in Europe.

The trees are grown from
hardwood cuttings or from seed,
both of which are planted in
autumn. The leaves are gathered
in summer and dried. The bark
is harvested during the autumn
and dried as quickly as possible in
the shade.

Related Species

European hazel (Corylus avellana ) is
a similar herb. It is used occasionally
in European herbal medicine as an
astringent to treat diarrhea. The oil is
nutritious and can be used to treat
threadworms in children.

Key Constituents

■ Tannins (8-10%)

■ Flavonoids

■ Bitter principle

■ Volatile oil (leaves only)

Key Actions

■ Astringent

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Stops external and
internal bleeding

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Established properties Witch
hazel contains large quantities of
tannins. These have a drying,
astringent effect, causing the
tightening up of proteins in the skin
and across the surface of abrasions.
This creates a protective covering
that increases resistance to
inflammation and promotes healing
of broken skin. Witch hazel also
appears to help damaged blood
vessels beneath the skin. It is thought
that this effect may be due to the
flavonoids as well as to the tannins.
When witch hazel is distilled it retains
its astringency, suggesting that
astringent agents other than tannins
are present.

■ Skin problems Witch hazel
is a very useful herb for inflamed
and tender skin conditions, such as
eczema. It is mainly used where the
skin has not been significantly broken
and helps to protect the affected
area and prevent infection.

■ Damaged veins Witch hazel
is valuable for damaged facial veins,
varicose veins, and hemorrhoids,
and is an effective remedy for
bruises. Due to its astringent
properties, it helps to tighten
distended veins and restore their
normal structure.

■ Other uses A lotion can be
applied to the skin for underlying
problems such as cysts or tumors.

ES Parts Used

The leaves are odorless

but have a bitter,
aromatic taste ,

Dried leaves

Leaves and young twigs

are distilled to make
“witch hazel.”

Fresh leaves

Fresh bark

Dried bark

Bark is used
in tinctures
and ointments

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution If using internally, take only under professional supervision.

Tincture of bark (to make, p. 292).
Dilute I tbsp in % cup (100 ml) cold
water and sponge onto varicose veins.

Distilled witch hazel Dab onto insect
stings, sore skin, and broken veins.

Ointment of bark (to make,
p. 295). Apply to hemorrhoids
twice a day.

Infusion of the leaves (to make, p. 291). Use as a lotion (see p. 296) for broken
veins and cysts.

Witch hazel also makes an effective
eyewash for inflammation of the
eyes. Less commonly, it is taken
internally to alleviate diarrhea,
helping to tighten up the mucous
membranes of the intestines, and
for bleeding of any kind.

Self-help Uses

■ Bruises, p. 304.

■ Cleansing wounds, p. 304.

■ Eczema, p. 300.

■ Hemorrhoids, p. 302.

■ Skin rashes, p. 303.

■ Varicose veins, p. 302.

HARPAG0PHYTUM PROCUMBENS

Harpagophytum procumbens (Pedaliaceae)

Devil’s Claw

The colorful name of this African plant is derived
from the appearance of its tough, barbed fruit. The
medicinal properties of devil’s claw were first discovered
by various southern African peoples, who used a
decoction of the tuber to treat digestive problems
and arthritis. The herb is now widely available in
pharmacies and health food stores in the West as
a remedy for arthritis and rheumatism.

Devil’s claw, found growing in the Transvaal,
has bright purple flowers in spring.

Habitat & Cultivation

Devil’s claw is native to Namibia,
Botswana, and South Africa, where
it is a protected species due to over¬
harvesting of wild plants. It thrives
in clay or sandy soils, preferring
roadsides and open areas, especially
places where natural vegetation
has been cleared. Propagated from
seed in spring, the young tubers
are unearthed in autumn and cut
into pieces about 3 A in (2 cm) long.
Care is taken not to mix the tubers,
which contain the active constituents,
with the roots, as this can render
the herb ineffective.

Related Species

Two related species, both growing
in Africa, are used medicinally in
a more or less similar way to
devil’s claw.

Key Constituents

■ Iridoid glycosides
(harpagoside)

■ Sugars (stachyose)

■ Phytosterols

■ Flavonoids

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Analgesic

■ Digestive stimulant

■ Antiarthritic

Research

■ Anti-inflammatory French
research (1992) indicated that
devil’s claw is anti-inflammatory,
but opinion is divided on its
effectiveness in practice.

■ Pain relief There is some
evidence to confirm devil’s claw’s
use as an analgesic as it seems to
be effective in easing the symptoms
of joint pain.

■ Bitter The strongly bitter action
of devil’s claw stimulates and tones
the digestive system. Many arthritic
conditions are associated with poor
digestion and absorption of food,
and the stimulant effect of this
herb on the stomach and gallbladder
contributes to its overall therapeutic
value as an antiarthritic remedy.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ African traditional remedy

Devil’s claw is used by various peoples
in southern Africa, including the
Khoisan and the Bantu. Traditionally
it has been used as atonic, especially
for digestive problems; for arthritis
and rheumatism; to reduce fevers;
and as an ointment for sores,
ulcers, and boils.

■ Western uses Current Western
use of devil’s claw is broadly in line
with its traditional application. It is
commonly available over the counter
in tablet form for arthritic and
rheumatic conditions and can bring

Devil’s claw

A trailing perennial,
reaching 5 ft (1.5 m)
in length, with fleshy
lobed leaves and
barbed, woody fruit.

E3 Parts Used

Tuber is harvested in autumn
and used in a variety of
antiarthritic preparations.

Chopped dried tuber

Sliced dried
tuber

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take if suffering from gallstones or peptic ulcer. Do not take
during pregnancy. May interact with anticoagulants.

Decoction (to make, p. 291).

For rheumatism, simmer I tsp root
in % cup (150 ml) water for 15 minutes.
Take in small doses over 1-2 days.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For arthritis associated with
poor digestion, take 30 drops
with water twice daily.

relief from pain arising from a range
of joint and muscular problems,
including gout, back pain, fibrositis,
and rheumatoid arthritis.

Self-help Uses

■ Arthritis & inflamed joints, p. 3 13.

■ Back pain due to joint
inflammation, p. 3 13.

103

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- KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

H U M UL US LU P U L U S

Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae)

Hops

The bitter taste of hops, which is well known to beer
drinkers, largely accounts for this herb’s ability to strengthen
and stimulate the digestion, Hops are also sedative and
make a valuable remedy for sleeplessness and excitability.
When the plant was first used to brew beer in England in
the 16th century, it aroused great opposition: a petition
to Parliament described it as “a wicked weed” that would
"endanger the people.”

Hops have been cultivated for brewing
beer since at least the 11 th century.
The bines (stems) are trained up raised
wire runners.

Habitat & Cultivation

Indigenous to Europe and Asia,
hops flourish along roadsides and in
open areas. They are grown
commercially throughout northern
Europe and northern states of
the U.S. Flowers of the female plant
(strobiles) are picked in early autumn
and dried at a low temperature.

Related Species

Hops are related to marijuana
('Cannabis sativa, p. 181).

Key Constituents

■ Bitter principles (lupulin containing
humulon, lupulon and valerianic acid)

■ Volatile oil (I % ), humulene

■ Flavonoids

■ Polyphenolic tannins

■ Estrogenic substances

Key Actions

■ Sedative

■ Soporific

■ Antispasmodic

■ Aromatic bitter

Research

■ Bitter principles

The bitter principles as a whole
strongly stimulate the digestive
system, increasing the rate of
gastric and other secretions. A
number of constituents, such as
lupulin, are sedative, though it is not
yet entirely understood how they
work. Lupulon and humulon
are antiseptic.

■ Other research The herb
relaxes smooth muscle and has
been shown to have an estrogenic
effect. Some isolated constituents
are thought to depress central
nervous activity.

Hops

A tall, climbing
perennial, growing
to 23 ft (7 m). Hop
plants are either male
or female.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Historical uses Hops feature
only occasionally in early herbals,
and the health benefits ascribed
to them are similar to our
understanding today.

■ Sedative The herb is used mostly
for its sedative effect. A sachet placed
inside a bed pillow releases an aroma
that calms the mind. Hops help to
reduce irritability and restlessness
and promote a sound night’s sleep.

■ Tension Blended with other
herbs, hops are good for stress,
anxiety, tension, and headaches,
though they should not be used
if depression is a factor. Their
antispasmodic action makes hops
useful for certain types of asthma
and for period pain.

■ Aid to digestion Hops are
beneficial for the digestion, increasing
stomach secretions and relaxing
spasms and colic.

Self-help Uses

■ Insomnia, p. 309.

ES Parts Used

The strobiles develop
at the end of bines that

Strobiles (female flowers) are leafy conelike
catkins. Ripe strobiles may be used fresh but are more
commonly dried for their sedative and bitter action.

grow up to 13 ft (4 m)

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Do not take if suffering from depression.

Sachet Make a sachet with
100 g dried herb. Put inside
a pillow to aid sleep.

Infusion (to make, p. 291).
For insomnia, drink 34 cup
(150 ml) at night.

Tablets usually contain other herbs.
Take for stress or sleeplessness.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For excessive
anxiety, take 20 drops diluted in a glass of
water 3 times a day. For digestive headaches,
take 10 drops with water up to 6 times a day.

Capsules (to make, p. 292). To stimulate the appetite, take a
300 mg capsule 2 times a day before meals.

104

HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS

Hydrastis canadensis (Ranunculaceae)

Goldenseal

Goldenseal is a North American remedy, prized during
the 19th century as a cure-all. The Cherokee and other
Native Americans used it, mixed with bear fat, as an insect
repellent, and they also made it into a lotion for wounds,
ulcers, and sore, inflamed eyes. It was given internally for
stomach and liver problems. Today it is employed as an
astringent, antibacterial remedy for the mucous
membranes of the body

Goldenseal is an unusual looking plant with
a single, red inedible fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation

Goldenseal grows wild in moist
mountainous woodland areas of
North America and prefers soil
that is well covered with dead
leaves. Due to excessive harvesting
in the wild, instances of goldenseal
in its natural habitat have become
very rare. In 1997 it was listed as an
endangered species, and so only
cultivated produce should be used.
Goldenseal is propagated by root
division. Rhizomes from 3-year-old
plants are dug up in the autumn and
dried in the open air on cloth.

Key Constituents

■ Isoquinoline alkaloids
(hydrastine, berberine,
canadine)

■ Volatile oil

■ Resin

Key Actions

■ Bitter tonic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antibacterial

■ Uterine stimulant

■ Stops internal bleeding

Research

■ Alkaloids For an herb with
such a high medicinal reputation,
there has been very little research
into its pharmacology, but it is
known that goldenseal’s medicinal
actions are due largely to the
isoquinoline alkaloids.

■ Hydrastine Research in
Canada in the late 1960s showed
that hydrastine constricts the blood
vessels and stimulates the autonomic
nervous system.

■ Antibacterial Although this
herb’s mode of action and degree
of effectiveness is not fully known,
it has been found that the herb’s
constituents collectively have a
stronger antibacterial activity than
berberine alone.

■ Berberine Berberine is bitter,
antibacterial, and amebicidal.

Recent research has established
that it can be used to lower harmful
blood-fat levels and stabilize blood
glucose levels.

■ Canadine Research shows that
this alkaloid stimulates the muscles
of the uterus.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Mucous membranes Most
authorities agree that goldenseal
is a potent remedy for disorders
affecting mucous membranes of
the body, notably of the eye, ear,
nose, and throat, the stomach and
intestines, and the vagina.

■ Countering infection As
a dilute infusion, goldenseal can
be used as an eyewash, as a
mouthwash for infected gums,
and as an extremely effective

Goldenseal

A small herbaceous
perennial, with a thick
yellow root and an
erect stem growing
to I ft (30 cm).

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Toxic if taken to excess. Do not take if suffering from high blood pressure.
Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Not suitable for children.

Capsules For gastritis,
take a 300 mg capsule
3 times a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For excess mucus, take 20 drops
with water 3 times a day.

Powder is used to make capsules (see p. 292).

Decoction (to make, p. 291). For sore throats, gargle 2 Vi tbsp 3^4 times a day.
Infusion of powder (to make, p. 29 I). For yeast infections, apply 3 A cup (150 ml).

Rhizome contains alkaloids that
help to soothe and astringe the
mucous membranes.

Dried rhizome

E3 Parts Used

Rhizome has a
characteristic golden
yellow color

Fresh rhizome

wash or douche for vaginal yeast
and vaginal infections generally.

The infusion is also valued as a
remedy for psoriasis.

■ Digestive problems Taken
internally, goldenseal increases
digestive secretions, astringesthe
mucous membranes that line the gut,
and checks inflammation. It should
not be taken for extended periods
of time as it reduces the gut’s capacity

to absorb certain nutrients, notably
B vitamins.

■ Gynecological uses

Goldenseal helps to reduce heavy
menstrual bleeding and is used by
herbal practitioners and midwives
to help stop bleeding following
childbirth (postpartum hemorrhage).
Goldenseal stimulates the uterus and
should not, therefore, be taken
during pregnancy.

105

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

HYPERICUM PERFORATUM

106

Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae)

St. John’s Wort

St. John’s wort

An erect perennial
growing to 32 in
(80 cm), with bright
yellow flowers in a
flat-topped cluster.

St. John’s wort flowers at the summer solstice. In medieval
Europe it was considered to have the power to protect
against ill health and evil influences. Medicinally it was
thought to heal wounds and “all down-heartedness.” In the
19th century the herb fell into disuse, but recent research
has brought it back into prominence as a key herb for
nervous exhaustion and depression. It is now one of the
most used herbal medicines in the world.

St. John’s wort was a folk remedy for insanity
in the Middle Ages.

Habitat & Cultivation

St. John’s wort thrives in temperate
regions worldwide. It prefers a sunny
site and well-drained, chalky soil. It
can be grown from seed or by root
division in autumn. The flowering
tops are harvested in summer.

Related Species

A number of other Hypericum species
have a roughly similar medicinal action.

Key Constituents

■ Phloroglucinols (hyperforin)

■ Polycyclic diones (hypericin)

■ Flavonoids

Key Actions

■ Antidepressant

■ Anxiolytic

■ Antiviral

■ Wound healer

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

■ Depression Clinical research
since the 1970s has established St.
John’s wort as an effective treatment
for mild to moderate depression.

A review in 2009 also concluded
that the herb was helpful in treating
severe depression. Research shows
that St. John’s wort works on
neurotransmitter levels (e.g. serotonin)
in several different ways.

■ Viral infection St. John’s wort
extracts (particularly hypericin, the
red pigment found in the petals and
leaves) have strong antiviral activity,
notably against influenza, herpes, and
hepatitis B and C.

■ Safety St. John’s wort rarely
causes side effects itself, but

it does interact with certain
conventional medicines, mostly
increasing the rate at which they
are broken down by the liver.

This changes the amount of the
drug present in the bloodstream,
significantly reducing its
effectiveness. In rare situations,
this can be life threatening.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Nerve tonic The herb acts as a
restorative and n euro protective,
helping to reverse long-term nervous
exhaustion and lowered mood. It
can prove useful in seasonal affective
disorder and chronic anxiety, and
improves sleep quality.

■ Menopause The herb is
considered a specific for the lowered
mood that can accompany
menopause, often combined with
black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa,

p. 79) in such cases.

■ Tissue healing The red infused
oil has potent wound-healing
properties and historically has been
used to heal knife and stab wounds.
Nowadays, St. John’s wort oil is more

Bright yellow petals
have oil glands
containing hypericin

*

*

*

Fresh flowers

Dried flowering tops

0 Parts Used

Flowering tops are

picked when the
flowers have opened.

Fresh

flowering tops

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Can cause sensitivity to sunlight. Due to possible interactions, seek
professional advice if taking a prescribed medicine, including blood thinners.
Restricted in some countries. Do not combine with other antidepressants.

Infused oil Make by
steeping the herb
in oil for 6 weeks
(see p. 294). Dab
onto minor wounds
and burns.

Cream (to make, p. 296). For
cramps or neuralgia, rub onto
the affected part.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For depression, take Vi tsp
with water 3 times a day.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I), Drink Vi cup (100 ml) daily as a digestive tonic.

commonly used to promote healing
after surgery and minor burns.

The oil can be particularly helpful
in relieving neuralgia—shingles,
sciatica, and toothache being
common applications.

Self-help Uses

■ Anxiety, depression & tension,

p. 308.

■ Back pain, p. 3 13.

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Cold sores, chicken pox, &
shingles, p. 304.

■ Depression & decreased vitality
due to menopause, p. 3 16.

■ Neuralgia, p. 308.

■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 3 13.

■ Tired & aching muscles,
p. 3 12.

INULA H E L E N I U M

Inula helenium (Asteraceae)

Elecampane

Prized by the Romans as a medicine and as a food,
this herb derives its botanical name from Helen
of Troy, who, according to legend, was holding
elecampane in her hand when she set off with Paris
to live with him in Troy. The root of the plant has
long been seen as a gently warming and tonic herb,
and is particularly useful for chronic bronchitis and
other chest problems.

“Elecampane will the spirits sustain,”
is a medieval saying. It reflects the herb’s
tonic properties.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to southeastern Europe
and western Asia, elecampane
now grows in many temperate
regions, including parts of the U.S.

It is also cultivated. Propagated
from seed in spring or by root
division, it prefers moist, well-drained
ground. The root is unearthed in
autumn, cut up, and then dried at
a high temperature.

Related Species

Xuan fu huo (/. joponica) grows
in China and Japan. Other relatives
used medicinally include sunflower
(hielianthus annuus), common
fleabane (Pulicaria dysenterica), and
echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 94).

Key Constituents

■ Inulin (up to 44%)

■ Volatile oil (up to 4%),
containing alantol

and sesquiterpene lactones
(including alantolactone)

■ Triterpene saponins

■ Phytosterols

Key Actions

■ Expectorant

■ Soothes coughing

■ Increases sweating

■ Mildly bitter

■ Eliminates worms

■ Antibacterial

Research

■ Inulin Inulin was first isolated
from elecampane in 1804 and
took its name from the herb. It
has mucilaginous qualities that
help soothe the bronchial linings.

■ Antimicrobial Alantolactone
has been shown to have significant
activity against the tuberculosis
mycobacterium. Researchers in
Ireland found that the root had
potent effect against MRSA, an
antibiotic-resistant “superbug.”

■ Whole herb As a whole, the
root has a stimulant, expectorant
effect, encouraging the coughing
up of mucus from the lungs. The
volatile oil is known to be partly
responsible for this and also for
the herb’s antiseptic properties.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Chest infections Elecampane
has long been valued for its tonic,
strengthening effect on the
respiratory system and for its
ability to resolve chest infections.
Its warming effect on the lungs,
combined with its ability to gently
stimulate the clearing of mucus
from the chest, makes it safe for
young and old. It can be used in
almost all chest conditions, and

is very useful when the patient
is debilitated.

Elecampane

A perennial growing
to 10 ft (3 m), with
golden yellow, daisy¬
like flowers and large,
pointed leaves.

E9 Parts Used

Root contains inulin, a
mucilaginous (jelly-like)
substance that soothes
and relieves coughing.

Dried root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Can cause skin reactions. Do not take internally in pregnancy
or if breastfeeding.

Decoction (to make, p. 291). Tincture (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis,

For irritable coughs, take % cup mix 2 Vi tbsp with 2Vi tbsp thyme tincture.

(75 ml) 2-3 times a day. Take I tsp 3 times a day.

Syrup For coughs, make an infusion (see p. 29 I) and simmer until it has reduced
to half its volume, before adding the sugar or honey (to make, p. 293). Take 1-2 tsp
every 2 hours.

■ Chronic chest complaints

Elecampane’s qualities have led to
its specific use for chronic bronchitis
and bronchial asthma. It is particularly
useful because it both soothes the
bronchial tube linings and is an
expectorant. In addition, the herb
is mildly bitter, helping recovery
by improving digestion and the
absorption of nutrients.

■ Digestive problems
Elecampane has been taken
traditionally as a tonic herb for the

digestion. It stimulates the appetite
and relieves dyspepsia. It is a useful
remedy for the treatment of worms.

■ Infection In the past, elecampane
was used in the treatment of
tuberculosis. It works well with
other antiseptic herbs and is given
for infections such as tonsillitis. Its
restorative, tonic action complements
its ability to counter infection.

Self-help Use

■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 3 10.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

108

LAVANDULA OFFICINALIS

Lavandula angustifolia syn. L. officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Lavender

Lavender

A perennial shrub
growing to 3 ft (I m),
with spikes of violet-
blue flowers extending
above the foliage.

Lavender is an important relaxing herb, but it is better
known for its sweet-scented aroma than for its medicinal
properties. It became popular as a medicine during the
late Middle Ages, and in 1620 it was one of the medicinal
herbs taken to the New World by the Pilgrims. It was
described by the herbalist John Parkinson (1640) as
being of "especiall good use for all griefes and paines
of the head and brain.”

Lavender is widely cultivated for perfume
and medicinal use.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to France and the western
Mediterranean, lavender is cultivated
worldwide for its volatile oil. It is
propagated from seed or cuttings
and needs a sunny position. The
flowers are picked in the morning
in high summer and are dried, or
distilled to produce essential oil.

Related Species

Spike lavender (L spied) yields more
oil than L. officinalis, but of an inferior
quality. L. stoechas is used as an
antiseptic wash for wounds, ulcers,
and sores in Spain and Portugal.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (up to 3%)
containing over 40 constituents,
including linalyl acetate (30-60%),
cineole (10%), linalool,

nerol, borneol

■ Flavonoids

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Relieves anxiety

■ Antidepressant

■ N euro protective

■ Antimicrobial

Research

■ Lavender oil A 2014 clinical trial
found lavender oil taken internally
to be more effective than both a
placebo and a conventional tranquilizer
in relieving generalized anxiety. It also
showed antidepressant activity. Other
studies have found similar benefits
and tended to confirm relaxant,
antidepressant, and gently sedative
activity. The oil is thought to have low
toxicity and significant antibacterial
and antifungal activity.

■ Flowers Lavender flowers and oil
have similar properties. Although
little research has been conducted,

it is likely the flowers have a
significantly greater carminative and
neuroprotective activity. Applied
externally, flower extracts are
insecticidal and rubefacient (irritant
and stimulating to the local circulation).

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Nervous system Lavender is well
known for its soothing and calming
effect and is combined with other
sedative herbs to relieve sleeplessness,
irritability, headaches, and migraine.

It also helps to alleviate depression.

■ Digestion Like many herbs
with a significant volatile oil content,
lavender soothes indigestion and
colic, and relieves gas and bloating.

■ Asthma Lavender’s relaxing effect
makes it helpful for some types of
asthma, especially where excessive
nervousness is a feature.

■ Essential oil The oil is an
invaluable first aid remedy. It is

EJ Parts Used

Flowers are

harvested toward
the end of flowering,
when the petals have
begun to fade.

Flowers contain
high levels of
volatile oil

Fresh

flowers

Dried flowers

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional supervision.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). Massage oil For headaches, combine

For insomnia, take J4-I tsp 20 drops with I tbsp carrier oil and

with water at night. apply (see p. 297).

Essential oil Apply undiluted to insect stings.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I) is a calming remedy for digestive problems.
For indigestion, take % cup (75 ml) twice a day.

strongly antiseptic, helping to heal
burns, wounds, and sores. Rubbed
onto insect stings, it relieves pain and
inflammation, and can be used to treat
scabies and head lice. Massaging a few
drops on the temples eases headaches,
and five drops added to a bath at night
relieves muscle tension, tones the
nervous system, and encourages sleep.

Self-help Uses

■ Back pain, p. 3 13.

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Burns & sunburn, p. 309.

■ Earache, p. 3 12.

■ Headaches & migraine, p. 309.

■ Insomnia, p. 309.

■ Neuralgia, p. 308.

■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 3 13.

LI N U M USITATISSIMUM

Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)

Flaxseed, Linseed

Flaxseed

A slender annual, to
3 ft (I m) tall, with
narrow leaves, blue
flowers, and spherical
seed capsules.

Flaxseed or linseed has been cultivated in the Middle
East for at least 7,000 years, and its seed and fiber
have been put to innumerable uses—both medicinal
and industrial—throughout history. Flaxseed has been
shown to have very high levels of polyunsaturated
essential fatty acids, making it valuable in maintaining
a healthy heart and circulation, and in preventing
chronic inflammatory diseases.

Flaxseed is the best vegetable source
of omega-3 essential fatty acids.

Habitat & Cultivation

Originally native to temperate zones
in Europe and Asia, flaxseed is
now widely cultivated in temperate
regions, including Canada and the
U.S., Argentina, and northern Europe.
It is grown from seed in spring and
harvested when the seed is ripe in late
summer or early autumn.

Related Species

Purging flax (L. cathorticum), native
to western Europe, is a purgative,
but no longer used.

Key Constituents

■ Fixed oil (approximately 35%)
mostly alpha-linolenic acid
(omega-essential fatty acid)

■ Protein (about 26%)

■ Fiber (about 14%)

■ Mucilage (about 12%)

■ Sterols

■ Lignans

Key Actions

■ Demulcent

■ Emollient

■ Laxative

■ Phytoestrogenic

■ Cancer-fighting

Research

■ Omega-3 oils Flaxseed is
unusual in that it has very high levels
of alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acid, similar to
those most commonly found in fish
oils. Research indicates that omega-3
oils have significant anti-inflammatory
activity. They also help to protect the
heart and circulation, and to reduce
heart irregularities. The seed, rather
than the oil, helps to lower
cholesterol levels.

■ Cancer-fighting Ground flaxseed
appears to be specifically useful
against endometrial, breast, and
prostate cancer: it is rich in omega-3
oils, which are deficient in most
Western diets; in lignans, which are
phytoestrogenic and reduce the
impact of estradiol (a potentially
harmful type of estrogen); and in
mucilage and fiber, which prevent
reabsorption of unwanted estrogens
from the intestines. Flaxseed added
to the diet lowers PSA levels (used to
measure prostate cancer risk) and
thus is thought to protect against
prostate cancer.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Laxative Flaxseed has mostly
been used as a bulk laxative,
especially valuable in chronic
constipation. The seeds soak up
fluid in the gut, helping to make
the stool softer and encouraging
easier bowel movements. They
should be taken with about 5 times
their volume of water. With their

E3 Parts Used

Whole seeds gently
support elimination
and cleanse the colon.
Cracked or ground
seeds need to be used
for other medicinal
benefits. Golden
linseed varieties are
usually preferred.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Do not use immature seeds, which may be toxic. Store cracked or
ground seed in a closed container and keep in the fridge.

Oil from the seed is convenient to use
but goes rancid easily. Take I -2 tsp
daily as a nutritional supplement.

Cracked or ground seed Take
I -2 tbsp daily with water to help
relieve menopausal symptoms.

Flour is mixed with water and used as a poultice, and used in baking as a
phytoestrogenic food during menopause.

significant mucilage content, the
seeds are also soothing and anti¬
inflammatory, reducing irritation
and inflammation in the gut in
such conditions as colitis, irritable
bowel, and hemorrhoids.

■ Respiratory & urinary
disorders The seeds, which need
to be split or ground up before being
swallowed, soothe the chest and,

to a lesser extent, the urinary tract.
They have proved helpful in chronic
or paroxysmal coughs, bronchitis, and
emphysema, and in urinary troubles
such as chronic cystitis.

■ External uses A poultice of the
crushed seeds or of flaxseed flour is

applied to painful or tender boils and
carbuncles, softening the skin and
drawing out the purulent material.

A Portuguese recipe recommends
combining flaxseed oil with red
wine as an effective topical remedy
for wounds.

■ Menopause Adding flaxseed
to the diet can support estrogen
balance at menopause and reduce
associated symptoms. Flax and other
seeds can be made into a
“menopause cake.”

Self-help Uses

■ Constipation, p. 3 17.

■ Menopause, p. 3 16.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

LOBELIA INFLATA

I 10

Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae)

Lobelia, Indian Tobacco

Lobelia is a powerful antispasmodic used for respiratory
and muscle disorders. In common with other Lobelia
species, it was a traditional Native American remedy
for many conditions. It was used as a “puke weed” to
induce vomiting, as a remedy for worms and venereal
disease, and as an expectorant. Lobelia was also smoked
as a substitute for tobacco, and was reputed to share
some of its magical qualities.

Lobelia’s pale blue flowers were believed to
have magical properties and were used
to ward off ghosts.

Habitat & Cultivation

An indigenous American plant,
lobelia is found in much of North
America, especially in eastern parts
of the U.S. It grows by roadsides and
in neglected areas, and prefers acid
soil. The aerial parts are harvested
in early autumn, when the seed
capsules are most numerous, and
are carefully dried.

Related Species

At least 4 other Lobelia species were
traditionally used by Native Americans.
One, great lobelia (L. siphilitica ), as its
Latin name suggests, was credited
by Native Americans and European
settlers with the power to cure
syphilis. Chinese lobelia (ban bian
Han , L. chinensis) is used in Chinese
herbal medicine mainly as a diuretic
and for snake bite.

Key Constituents

■ Piperidine alkaloids (6%)—
principally lobeline, but
many others present

■ Carboxylic acids

Key Actions

■ Respiratory stimulant

■ Antispasmodic

■ Expectorant

■ Induces vomiting

■ Increases sweating

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Native American remedy

Lobelia was a traditional Native
American remedy with a wide range
of applications. Its use was later
championed by the American
herbalist Samuel Thomson (1769-
1843), who made the herb the
mainstay of his therapeutic system
(see p. 27). He mainly used it to
induce vomiting.

■ Therapeutic properties The

whole herb is strongly antispasmodic.
The constituent lobeline stimulates
the respiratory center within the
brain stem, producing stronger
and deeper breathing. Laboratory
investigations during the 1990s
suggest that lobeline has
antidepressant activity.

■ Respiratory problems
A powerful antispasmodic and
respiratory stimulant, lobelia is
valuable for asthma, particularly
bronchial asthma, and chronic
bronchitis. The herb helps to relax
the muscles of the smaller bronchial
tubes, thereby opening the airways,
stimulating breathing, and promoting
the coughing up of phlegm. In the
Anglo-American herbal tradition,
lobelia has always been combined
with cayenne ( Capsicum frutescens,

p. 74); the heating, stimulant action
helps to push blood into areas that
lobelia has relaxed.

Lobelia

An annual growing
to 20 in (50 cm), with
lance-shaped leaves
and pale blue, pink-
tinged flowers.

Parts Used

Aerial parts have
important antispasmodic
properties and help relieve
respiratory complaints.

Dried aerial parts

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

@ Cautions Take only when prescribed by a medical herbalist
or doctor and do not eat the fresh plant. Excessive ingestion
is rare (vomiting normally occurs first) but can be fatal. Restricted
herb in some countries.

Infusion is prescribed
for bronchitis.

Tincture is given
to relieve asthma.

Tablets containing lobelia in
combination with other herbs are
used to treat bronchial asthma.

■ External applications Some
constituents, especially lobeline,
break down rapidly in the body, and
lobelia is often most effective applied
externally. Its antispasmodic action
helps to relax muscles, particularly
smooth muscle, making it useful for
sprains, and back problems where
muscle tension is a key factor. In

combination with cayenne, lobelia has
been used as a chest and sinus rub.

■ Tobacco addiction

The piperidine alkaloids, especially
lobeline, have similar chemical
effects to nicotine, found in tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum, p. 240), and
lobelia is employed by herbalists
to help patients give up smoking.

LY C I U M C H I N E N S E

Lycium chinense syn. L barborum (Solanaceae)

Goji Berry, Chinese Wolfberry

Goji berry

A deciduous shrub
growing to 13 ft (4 m),
with bright green
leaves and scarlet
berries.

Goji berry is a major Chinese tonic herb, first
mentioned in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic
(Shen’nong Bencaojing) written in the I st century ce.
Traditionally it is believed to promote long life—a
Chinese herbalist, said to have lived for 252 years,
ascribed his longevity to tonic herbs, including goji
berry Today both the berries and the root have a
wide range of medicinal uses.

Goji berry produces berries that are
a blood tonic.

Habitat & Cultivation

Goji berry grows throughout much
of China and Tibet, and is cultivated
extensively across central and
northern China. It is grown from
seed in autumn. The root can be
unearthed at any time of the year,
but is most commonly harvested
in spring. The berries are picked in
late summer or early autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Beta-sitosterol
Berries only:

■ Polysaccharides

■ Betaine

■ Sterols

■ Carotenoids—mostly zeaxanthin

■ Vitamins B,, B l2 , and C

Root only:

■ Cinnamic acid

■ Psyllic acid

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Protects liver

■ Neuroprotective

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Anti-aging

Research

■ Immune modulation

Research that has been carried out
over the past 30 years indicates goji
berry supports immune function, in
part countering the reduction of
white blood cell production resulting
from aging. It also appears to
prevent infection by preventing
bacteria and viruses from attaching
to cell membranes, particularly in
the liver. The polysaccharides have
cancer-fighting activity.

■ Zeaxanthin This compound,
occurring in higher concentration
in goji berry than any other food,

is taken as a supplement to support
eyesight and the health of the retina.

It is thought to protect against age-
related macular degeneration.

■ Tonic and neuroprotective
Several clinical trials in China have
found that goji berry juice promotes
general well-being, reducing signs

of fatigue, weakness, depression,
and stress. In early-stage research,
goji berry has shown promise as a
neuroprotective agent, and seems
to act within the brain to prevent
some aspects of the degenerative
processes associated with
Alzheimer’s disease.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Circulation In China, goji berry
is taken as a blood tonic and to
improve the circulation. It is also
taken in orderto help lower blood
pressure and treat a range of
symptoms that include dizziness
and tinnitus.

■ Slowing aging The traditional
use of goji berry as a tonic of key

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

ES Parts Used

Root is used in preparations
to relieve fevers.

Fresh

root

Dried root

Berries can be eaten
raw or dried, or used
in cooking, e.g. soups.

Dried

berries

Fresh

berries

on sprig

O Cautions Avoid during pregnancy. It can interact
with some prescribed medicines: do not take with warfarin.

Decoction of the

root (to make,

p. 291). For fevers, take

A cup (100 ml) daily

Tincture of the root
(to make, p. 292). For
coughs and wheezing,
take !4tsp diluted with
water 3 times a day.

vr

Making a decoction with berries

Chop dried berries and simmer
(see p. 291). For poor eyesight,
take cup (100 ml) daily.

importance in the elderly is
gradually being endorsed by research.
Combined effects that protect
immune, liver, cardio-vascular, and
brain function from deterioration
suggest that goji berry has a place in

the diet of anyone seeking to keep
healthy in their later years. A small
handful of berries taken on a daily
basis (eaten raw or as part of a larger
dish) makes a useful contribution to
long term good health.

I I I

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

MELALEUCA ALTERNIFOLIA

I 12

Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae)

Tea Tree

Tea tree, and in particular its essential oil, is one of the
most important natural antiseptics. Useful for stings,
burns, wounds, and skin infections of all kinds, the herb
merits a place in every medicine chest. Tea tree is native
to Australia and is a traditional remedy of the Aborigines.
Its therapeutic properties were first researched during
the 1920s, and it is now widely used in Europe and the
U.S., as well as in Australia.

Tea tree provides one of the most effective
natural antiseptics.

Habitat & Cultivation

Tea tree is native to Australia,
flourishing in moist soils in northern
New South Wales and Queensland.

It is now cultivated extensively,
especially in New South Wales.

Tea tree is grown from cuttings
in summer. The leaves and small
branches are picked throughout
the year and distilled to produce
essential oil.

Related Species

Other Melaleuca species that provide
valuable essential oils include cajuput
(A/1, leucadendron, p. 233), broad¬
leaved paperbarktree (A/1, viridiflora)
and A/1, linariifolia, the essential oil of
which is very similar to tea tree.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil containing terpinen-4-
ol (40%), gamma-terpinene (24%),
alpha-terpinene (10%), cineo (5%)
(percentages are variable).

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Antibacterial

■ Antifungal

■ Antiviral

■ Immune stimulant

Research

■ Antiseptic properties Tea tree
essential oil was first researched in

1923 in Australia. Since the 1960s
it has been intensively investigated,
and its antiseptic properties are
well established. Clinical trials, mainly
in Australia, have shown that it is
effective at treating a broad range
of infectious conditions, especially
fungal and skin problems such as
vaginal yeast, acne, and warts.

■ Active constituents One of
the most important constituents is
known to be terpinen-4-ol, which
is significantly antiseptic and well
tolerated by the skin. The oil also
contains cineol, which can irritate
the skin. The cineol content varies—
poor-quality oil has more than

10%; in some cases up to 65%.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional remedy Tea tree is
a traditional Aboriginal remedy. The
leaves are crushed and either inhaled
or used in infusions for coughs, colds,
and skin infections.

■ Skin problems Tea tree can be
applied to skin infections such as
athlete’s foot and ringworm, as well
as to corns, warts, acne, and boils,
infected burns, wounds, insect bites
and stings, and other skin conditions.

■ Chronic infections Tea tree may
be taken internally as a treatment for
chronic, and some acute, infections,
notably cystitis, glandular fever, and
chronic fatigue syndrome.

Tea tree

An evergreen reaching
23 ft (7 m), with
layers of papery bark,
pointed leaves, and
white flower spikes.

0 Parts Used

Leaves have high levels of a
strongly antiseptic volatile oil
and are used in preparations for
skin problems and infections.

Dried leaves

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Caution Do not take the
essential oil internally except
under professional supervision.

Cream Add 5 drops
essential oil to I tsp
base cream and apply
to pimples 3 times
a day.

Infusion (to make, p. 291). For chronic
infections, infuse Ktsp herb in % cup
(150 ml) of water Take twice a day

Leaves have a
strong aroma
when crushed

Essential oil Add 3 drops
to 12 drops carrier oil and
dab onto athlete’s foot.

Pessaries (to make, p. 297). For vaginal infections, insert one a day.

■ Oral infections The herb is
effective in mouthwashes, countering
oral infection and gum disease, and
it can also be used as a gargle for
sore throats.

■ Vaginal infections Tea tree is
an excellent remedy for vaginal
irritation and infection, including yeast

infections. It may be used as a pessary
or can be diluted in a carrier cream
and then applied.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304.

■ Vaginal yeast infection, p. 3 14.

MELISSA OFFICINALIS

Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Lemon Balm, Melissa

In writing that “Balm is sovereign for the brain,
strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing
away melancholy,” John Evelyn (1620-1706) neatly
summarized lemon balm’s long tradition as atonic
remedy that raises the spirits and comforts the heart.
Today, this sweet-smelling herb is still widely valued for
its calming properties, and new research shows that it
can help significantly in the treatment of cold sores.

Lemon balm's botanical name, Melissa,
comes from the Greek for bee and refers to
the great attraction the plant holds for bees.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to southern Europe, western
Asia, and northern Africa, lemon
balm now grows throughout the
world. The plant is propagated from
seed or cuttings in spring. The aerial
parts are picked from early summer
onward and are best harvested
just before the flowers open, when
the concentration of volatile oil is
at its highest.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil up to 0.2% (citral,
caryophyllene oxide, linalool,
and citronellal)

■ Flavonoids

■ Triterpenes

■ Polyphenols

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Relaxant

■ Antispasmodic

■ Increases sweating

■ Carminative

■ Antiviral

■ Nerve tonic

Research

■ Volatile oil German research
has shown that the volatile oil, and in
particular citral and citronellal, calm
the central nervous system. The oil
is also strongly antispasmodic.

■ Polyphenols Polyphenols are
antiviral. In particular, they combat the
herpes simplex virus, which produces
cold sores. In one research study, the
average healing time of cold sores was
halved to about 5 days and the time
between outbreaks doubled.

■ Thyroid Lemon balm inhibits
thyroid function.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional uses This herb has
always been taken to lift the spirits.
Taken regularly, it was believed to
encourage longevity. Other traditional
uses include healing wounds, relieving
palpitations and relaxing the heart,
and treating toothache.

■ Modern relaxing tonic Lemon
balm is a relaxing tonic for anxiety,
mild depression, restlessness, and
irritability. It reduces feelings of
nervousness and panic and will
often quiet a racing heart, being

a valuable remedy for palpitations
of a nervous origin. Lemon balm
is also useful when too much anxiety
is causing digestive problems such as
indigestion, acidity, nausea, bloating,
and colicky pains.

■ Cold sores Lemon balm relieves
cold sores and reduces the chances
of further outbreaks.

■ Hormonal herb hollowing the
discovery of its antithyroid effect, the
herb is given to people with an
overactive thyroid.

Lemon balm

A perennial growing
to 5 ft (1.5 m), with
tiny white flowers
and deeply veined,
toothed leaves.

Dried aerial parts

Fresh aerial
parts

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

E3 Parts Used

Aerial parts are used in a variety
of preparations as a calming remedy.

O Caution Do not take the essential oil internally
except under professional supervision.

Leaves produce
a lemon scent
when crushed

Essential oil For shingles, add 5 drops
to I tsp olive oil and massage the
painful area gently (see p. 297).

Infusion (to make, p. 291).
For nervous headaches, drink
3 A cup (150 ml) 3 times a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For
anxiety and mild depression, take
i4 tsp with water 3 times a day.

Lotion For cold sores, make an infusion (see p. 291) and apply
regularly (see p. 296).

Juice Apply as needed to cuts and scrapes.

Ointment (to make, p. 295). Apply to insect stings.

■ Other uses Lemon balm is a
first-aid remedy for cuts and insect
stings and is good for fevers.

Self-help Uses

■ Anxiety, depression,

& tension, p. 308.

■ Cold sores, chicken pox,
& shingles, p. 304.

■ Flu with muscle aches
& pains, p. 3 I I.

■ Nausea due to emotional
problems, p. 306.

■ Stomachache, p. 305.

I 13

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

MENTHA X PIPERITA

Mentha x piperita (Lamiaceae)

Peppermint

Peppermint’s origin is a mystery, but it has been in
existence for a longtime—dried leaves were found
in Egyptian pyramids dating from around 1000 bce.

It was highly valued by the Greeks and Romans, but
only became popular in Western Europe in the 18th
century. Peppermint’s chief therapeutic value lies in
its ability to relieve gas, flatulence, bloating, and colic,
though it has many other applications.

Peppermint is cultivated in many parts of
the world for its oil.

Habitat & Cultivation

Peppermint is grown commercially
and in gardens throughout Europe,
Asia, and North America. It is
propagated from seed in spring and
is harvested just before it flowers
in summer, in dry sunny weather.

Related Species

Peppermint is a hybrid of watermint
(A/I. aquotica) and spearmint
(A/I. spicota), which have similar, though
milder, therapeutic properties.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (up to 1.5%),
including menthol (35-55%),
menthone (l(MK)%)

■ Flavonoids (luteolin,
menthoside)

■ Phenolic acids

■ Triterpenes

Research

■ Volatile oil Research has shown
that the volatile oil is strongly
antibacterial. Menthol (a constituent
of the oil) is antiseptic, antifungal,
cooling, and anesthetic to the skin,
although it is also an irritant.

■ Whole herb The whole plant
has an antispasmodic effect on the
digestive system. Clinical trials in
Denmark and the UK during the

1990s have confirmed its value
in the treatment of irritable
bowel syndrome.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Digestive problems

Peppermint is excellent for the
digestive system, increasing the
flow of digestive juices and bile
and relaxing the gut muscles. It
reduces nausea, colic, cramps, and
gas, and soothes an irritated bowel.

In soothing the lining and muscles
of the colon, it helps diarrhea and
relieves a spastic colon (often the
cause of constipation).

■ Pain relief Applied to the
skin, peppermint relieves pain and
reduces sensitivity. It also relieves
headaches and migraines linked to
digestive weakness.

■ Infection Diluted oil is used as an
inhalant and chest rub for respiratory
infections. The whole herb is
important for digestive infections.

I 14

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Stimulates sweating

■ Antimicrobial

■ Analgesic

■ Carminative

Self-help Uses

■ Digestive headaches, p. 309.

■ Eczema, p. 300.

■ Nausea with headache, p. 306.

■ Neuralgia, p. 308.

■ Gas & bloating, p. 306.

Peppermint

A strongly aromatic,
square-stemmed
annual, growing to
32 in (80 cm) with
serrated leaves.

£3 Parts Used

Aerial parts are distilled
for their volatile oil and used
in a variety of preparations.

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

Dried aerial parts

Leaves have high
levels of volatile oil,
which has important
digestive properties

Fresh aerial parts

O Cautions Do not give peppermint to children
under 5. The essential oil is best taken internally
on the advice of a healthcare practitioner; it is not
suitable for children under 12.

Essential oil Dilute to
2% (see p. 297) and
dab onto temples to
ease headaches.

Lotion made with
infusion (see p. 296).
Apply to irritated skin.

Infusion (to make,
p. 29 I). To improve
digestion, drink 34 cup
(150 ml) after meals.

Tincture mixed with other herbs, is prescribed mainly for digestive problems.
Capsules are prescribed for irritable bowel syndrome.

Myristica fragrans

Nutmeg &

MYRISTICA FRAGRANS

(Myristicaceae)

Mace, Rou Dou Kou (Chinese)

Nutmeg tree

An evergreen tree
growing to 39 ft
(12 m), with aromatic
leaves and clusters of
small yellow flowers.

Nutmeg and mace both come from the nutmeg tree
and have very similar medicinal properties. They
are infrequently used in the West because of their
toxicity at high dosages, but nonetheless are important
medicines, employed principally to stimulate
digestion and to treat infections of the digestive tract.
Nutmeg also has long been valued as an aphrodisiac
and as a remedy for eczema and rheumatism.

Nutmeg and mace are cultivated
commercially in the tropics.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to the Molucca Islands of
Indonesia, nutmeg trees are now
widely cultivated. They are propagated
from seed, sown when ripe. The
tree yields fruit after about 8 years,
and can continue to fruit for over
60 years. The fruit is picked when
ripe and the nutmeg and mace are
separated and dried.

Key Constituents

Nutmeg:

■ Volatile oil (up to 15%),
including alpha-pinene,
beta-pinene, alpha-terpinene,
beta-terpinene, myristicin,
elincin, safrole

■ Fixed oil (“nutmeg butter”),
myristine, butyrin

Mace:

■ Volatile oil (similar to nutmeg
but with a higher concentration
of myristicin)

Key Actions

Nutmeg:

■ Carminative

■ Relieves muscle spasms

■ Prevents vomiting

■ Stimulant
Mace:

■ Stimulant

■ Carminative

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Digestive problems Nutmeg
essential oil has an anesthetic and
stimulating effect on the stomach
and intestines, increasing appetite
and reducing nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea. It is a helpful remedy for
many digestive problems, especially
gastroenteritis.

■ Sleep aid Though nutmeg is
a stimulant, it has narcotic and
anticonvulsant properties and
can be successfully used at low
dose (a pinch of powder will do)

as a sleep aid for short- or long-term
sleep problems. Laboratory studies
also indicate that nutmeg has
antidepressant activity.

■ Aphrodisiac In India, nutmeg
has a long reputation as an
aphrodisiac. It is believed to
increase sexual stamina.

■ External uses Ointments based
on the fixed oil (nutmeg butter) are
used to treat rheumatic conditions.
They have a counterirritant effect,
stimulating blood flow to the area.

In India, nutmeg is ground into a
paste and applied directly to areas
of eczema and ringworm.

■ Safety Low medicinal doses and
culinary amounts of nutmeg and mace
are safe. In excess, however, the herbs
are strongly stimulant, hallucinogenic,
and toxic. The consumption of just
two whole nutmegs has been known
to cause death.

E9 Parts Used

Aril (mace) surrounds
the seed casing. It is used in
cooking and as a medicine.

Aril (mace)
turns yellow
as it dries

Fresh,
scarlet aril

Woody seed
casing containing
kernel (nutmeg)

seed and aril

Dried seed and aril

Seed kernel (nutmeg)
is a stimulant remedy for
intestinal infections and
rheumatic conditions. In
China, nutmeg is known
as rou dou kou.

0 Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Take the essential oil internally only under professional supervision.
Do not take more than 3 g of either herb a day. Do not use during pregnancy.

Essential oil of

nutmeg is occasionally
used by herbalists to
treat vomiting.

Powdered mace is

prescribed to treat
gas and bloating.

Grated nutmeg For

eczema, mix 2 tsp
with a little water
into a paste and apply.

Infusion For gastroenteritis,
add a pinch of nutmeg
to 3/4 cup (150 ml) of
peppermint infusion (see
p. 29 I). Take 3 times a day.

Ointment made from fixed oil (nutmeg butter). For rheumatic conditions,
apply several times a day.

I 15

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

I 16

0 C I M U M TENUIFLORUM

Ocimum tenuiflorum syn. 0. sanctum (Lamiaceae)

Holy Basil, Tulsi (Hindi)

Holy basil

An aromatic annual
growing to about
28 in (70 cm), with
small, purple-red or
white flowers.

Holy basil, like sweet (culinary) basil, comes from India,
where it is revered as the herb sacred to the goddess
Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, the god who preserves life. Tulsi
means “matchless,” and the herb has very important
medicinal properties—notably its ability to reduce blood-
sugar levels. In Indian herbal medicine, holy basil has a
wide range of uses, relieving fevers, bronchitis, asthma,
stress, and mouth ulcers.

Holy basil is so called because it is often
planted around temples and courtyards
in India.

Habitat & Cultivation

Holy basil is native to India and other
tropical regions of Asia. It is also
grown extensively in Central and
South America, mainly for its
medicinal properties. Holy basil can
be grown from seed and is often
cultivated as a potted plant. The
aerial parts are picked before the
flowers open, in early summer.

Related Species

The familiar culinary species,
sweet basil (0. basilicum, p. 241),
is a close relative.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (I %) including
eugenol (70-80%)

■ Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin)

■ Triterpene (ursolic acid)

■ Polyphenols

■ Saponins

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Analgesic

■ Lowers blood-sugar levels

■ Reduces fever

■ Adaptogenic

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

■ Diabetes Research into holy basil’s
ability to reduce blood-sugar levels,
and thus help diabetes, has been
going on for some decades. It has
now been established as a useful
medicine for some types of diabetes.

■ Indian research Research in
India has shown that holy basil
helps lower blood pressure and has
anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, and
fever-reducing properties. Preliminary
research also indicates that the herb
strengthens immune resistance,
protects against radiation, has
anticancer properties, and inhibits
sperm production.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional use Holy basil
has always been considered to be
atonic, invigorating herb, useful for
improving vitality.

■ Ayurvedic remedy In Ayurvedic
medicine, holy basil is chiefly employed
for fevers. A classical Indian recipe
mixes holy basil, black pepper (Piper
nigrum, p. 250), ginger (Zingiber
officinale, p. 155), and honey in a
remedy that prevents infection and
controls high fever.

■ Heart & stress Holy basil

is thought to have an affinity with
the heart, protecting it from stress
and lowering blood pressure and
cholesterol levels. It has a reputation
for reducing stress and is regarded
as adaptogenic—helping the body to
adapt to new demands and stresses.

EJ Parts Used

Aerial parts are tonic and
invigorating and have a wide
range of other properties.

Leaves are serrated and
covered in fine hairs

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Dried aerial parts

Fresh aerial parts

O Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. Do not take if trying to conceive.

Powder For mouth ulcers, rub
powder gently into sore areas
several times a day.

■ Diabetic remedy The herb’s
ability to help stabilize blood-sugar
levels makes it useful in the treatment
of diabetes.

■ Respiratory problems Holy
basil is valuable for respiratory
infections, especially colds, coughs,
bronchitis, and pleurisy. It also
treats asthma.

■ Other uses Juice is extracted and
applied to insect bites, ringworm,
and skin diseases. It is also used as
ear drops for ear infections. Juice or
powdered herb helps mouth ulcers
to heal.

Self-help Use

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

P A EO N I A LACTIFLORA

Paeonia lactiflora syn. P. albifloro (Paeoniaceae)

White Peony, Chinese Peony, Bai Shao Yao (Chinese)

White peony

An upright perennial,
growing to 6Vi ft (2 m),
with large white
flowers and divided,
dark green leaves.

White peony’s history of medicinal use in China
stretches back for at least 1,500 years. It is known
most widely as one of the herbs used to make “Four
Things Soup,” a female tonic, and it is also a remedy
for gynecological problems and for cramps, pain, and
dizziness. Traditionally, it is considered that women
who take the herb on a regular basis become as
radiant as the flower itself.

White peony is cultivated for its root, which
is a hormonal tonic, and for its flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation

White peony is cultivated throughout
northeastern China and Inner
Mongolia. It is propagated from seed
in spring, or from root cuttings taken
in winter. The root of 4- or 5-year-
old plants is harvested in spring
or autumn.

Related Species

P. suffructicosa, also commonly
used in East Asian herbal
medicine, and peony (P. officinalis,
p. 243), a European species,
have broadly similar properties
to white peony.

Key Constituents

■ Monoterpenoid glycosides
(paeoniflorin, albiflorin)

■ Benzoic acid

■ Pentagalloyl glucose

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Enhances cognition

■ Lowers blood pressure

Research

■ Paeoniflorin White peony
has significant anti-inflammatory
and antispasmodic properties, and
preclinical research indicates that
its traditional use for problems such
as rheumatoid arthritis is justified.
Paenoniflorin, the constituent most
responsible for these effects, is also
thought to lower blood pressure
and support blood flow to the heart.

■ Polycystic ovary syndrome
(PCOS) White peony has a
hormone-balancing activity that helps
to reverse the symptoms of PCOS,
which include irregular menstruation
and infertility. In combination with
licorice ( Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101) it
has been shown to support regular
ovulation and to lower the raised
testosterone levels that typically
occur in PCOS.

■ Supports cognition There is
accumulating evidence that white
peony supports mental function,
including spatial awareness and
memory. Although no clinical
trials have yet been published,
white peony appears to have a
strong neuroprotective effect
within the brain.

■ Cold sores Pentagalloyl glucose
may have an antiviral action against
the cold sore virus, herpes simplex.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Four Things Soup White peony
is regarded primarily as a women’s
herb. Together with rehmannia

(.Rehmannia glutinosa, p. 125), chuan
xiong (Ligusticum wallachii ), and dong
quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63), it is an
ingredient in “Four Things Soup,”

E3 Parts Used

Root has important
tonic and pain-relieving
properties. It is boiled
and dried for use in a
wide range of
preparations.

Root has

antispasmodic

properties

Fresh root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Do not take during

Decoction (to make, p. 291) helps relieve
period pain, heavy bleeding, and other
menstrual disorders. To relieve period
pain, take 'A cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.

Four things soup (to make,
see p. 315). Drink 3 A cup
(150 ml) daily as a general tonic.

Chuan

the most widely used female tonic
in China.

■ Gynecological remedy White
peony helps menstrual disorders,
including heavy bleeding and
bleeding between periods, and is
specifically used to treat period pain
and cramps. It is a blood and yin tonic

(see pp. 40-41) and will help “blood
deficiency” states, as well as hot
flashes and night sweats.

Self-help Uses

■ Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 3 15.

■ Hot flashes & night sweats, p. 3 16.

■ Period pain, p. 3 15.

I 17

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PANAX GINSENG

Panax ginseng (Araliaceae)

Ginseng, Chinese Ginseng, Ren Shen (Chinese)

Ginseng

A perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m), with oval,
toothed leaves and a
cluster of small green-
yellow flowers.

Ginseng is the most famous Chinese herb of all. It has
been prized for its remarkable therapeutic benefits for
about 7,000 years, and was so revered that wars were
fought for control of the forests in which it thrived. An
Arabian physician brought ginseng back to Europe in
the 9th century, yet its ability to improve stamina and
resistance to stress became common knowledge in
the West only from the 18th century.

Ginseng has always been valued as a tonic
in old age.

Habitat & Cultivation

Ginseng is native to northeastern
China, eastern Russia, and North
Korea, but is now extremely rare in
the wild. Ginseng cultivation requires
great skill. It is propagated from seed in
spring and requires rich, well-drained
soil. The plant takes at least 4 years to
mature. The root is then normally
harvested in autumn and washed
and steamed before being dried.

Related Species

San qi (P. notoginseng, p. 243),

P. pseudoginseng, and American
ginseng (P. quinquefolium, p. 243)
all have significant benefits.

I 18

Key Constituents

■ Triterpenoid saponins (0.7-3%),
ginsenosides—at least 25 have
been identified

■ Acetylenic compounds

■ Panaxans

■ Sesquiterpenes

Key Actions

■ Adaptogen

■ Tonic

Research

■ Adaptogen Ginseng has been
researched in detail over the last
50 years in China, Japan, Korea,
Russia, and many other countries.

Its remarkable adaptogenic quality
(helping the body adapt to stress,
fatigue and cold) has been confirmed.
Trials show that ginseng significantly
improves the body’s capacity to cope
with hunger, extremes of temperature,
and mental and emotional stress.

■ Hormonal support The
ginsenosides, which are similar
in structure to the body’s own
hormones, can be adapted within the
body to tone up deficient hormonal
states. Clinical trials support the root’s
traditional use by men, as they age,
to maintain vitality and virility. There
is also evidence it helps with both
impotence and erectile dysfunction.
Research indicates that ginseng

is equally valuable for women and is
a useful medicine at menopause and
beyond, aiding hot flashes and
lowered mood, and improving
sexual arousal.

■ Other research Ginseng
increases immune function and
resistance to infection and improves
liver function. Ginseng is a key herb
in maintaining health and quality of
life in those with cancer.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Chinese remedy In China,
ginseng is best known as a stimulant,
tonic herb for athletes and those
subject to physical stress, and as a
male aphrodisiac. It is also atonic for
old age, and is traditionally taken by
people in northern and central China

0 Parts Used

Root is harvested after 4 years,
when the active constituents are
most concentrated.

In China, dried
root is chewed
to provide an
energy boost

Dried root

Fresh root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not exceed dose (can cause insomnia and high blood pressure). Take
on professional advice if using blood-thinning medication. Young healthy adults should not
take ginseng more than 6 weeks. Avoid caffeine while taking it. Do not take if pregnant.

Capsules For nervous
exhaustion, take a 500 mg
capsule once a day.

Soup is a common way of
taking ginseng in China. Add
I g dried root per portion
of vegetable soup. Take daily.

Tablets are a convenient way of taking ginseng. Take for short-term stressful
events, such as moving a household.

from late middle age onward, helping
them endure the long hard winters.

■ Western tonic In the West,
ginseng is viewed not so much as a
medicine, but as a life-enhancing tonic.
It is useful for those coping with
stressful events, such as taking exams.

Self-help Uses

■ Impotence & premature
ejaculation, p. 3 16.

■ Maintaining vitality, p. 3 19.

■ Poor sleep & nervous
exhaustion, p. 309.

■ Short-term stress, p. 308.

PASSIFLORA INCARNATA

Passiflora incarnata (Passifloraceae)

Passionflower, Passiflora, Maypop

Passionflower’s name comes from its beautiful flowers,
thought to represent Christ’s crucifixion—5 stamens
for the 5 wounds, 3 styles for the 3 nails, and white
and purple-blue colors for purity and heaven. The herb
has valuable sedative and tranquilizing properties and
has a long use as a medicine in Central and North
American herbal traditions, being taken in Mexico for
insomnia, epilepsy, and hysteria.

Passionflower was used by the Algonquin
people of North America as an herbal
tranquilizer.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to the southern U.S.

(Virginia, Texas, and Tennessee)
and to Central and South America,
passionflower is now extensively
cultivated in Europe, notably in
Italy, as well as in North America.

It is propagated from seed in spring
and needs plenty of sun. The aerial
parts are gathered when the plant
is flowering or in fruit.

Related Species

There are approximately 400 Passiflora
species, some of which are popular
garden plants. A number have a
similar sedative action to passionflower
R quadrangularis has been found
to contain serotonin, one of the
main chemical messengers within
the brain.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonoids (apigenin)

■ Amino acids

■ Cyanogenic glycosides
(gynocardin)

■ Indole alkaloids (trace)

Key Actions

■ Sedative

■ Antispasmodic

■ Tranquilizing

Research

■ Tranquilizing properties

Pharmacological research shows the
herb to have sedative, tranquilizing,
and sleep-inducing properties. A 2001
clinical trial found that passionflower
was as effective in relieving anxiety as
oxazepam, a conventional tranquilizer;
and had fewer reported side effects.
A clinical study in 201 I found
improvement in subjective sleep quality
in those taking passionflower.

■ Indole alkaloids Research has
not yet conclusively established
that passionflower contains
indole alkaloids.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Insomnia Passionflower is best
known as a remedy for insomnia and
disturbed sleep patterns, and is useful
for short-term bouts of sleeplessness.

■ Gentle sedative This herb
is widely acknowledged to be a
good medicine for anxiety, tension,
irritability, and insomnia. Its gentle
sedative properties produce a
soothing and relaxing effect, reducing
nervous activity and panic, and
making it a mild and non-addictive
herbal tranquilizer, comparable in
some ways to valerian ( Valeriana
officinalis, p. 148). Occasionally, it is
prescribed for convulsions.

■ Pain relief Passionflower has
valuable painkilling properties and
is given for toothache, period pain,
and headaches.

Passionflower

A climbing vine
growing to 30 ft (9 m),
with 3-lobed leaves,
ornate flowers, and
egg-shaped fruit.

Fresh

flower

E3 Parts Used

Aerial parts are picked as
needed for relaxing infusions.

Dried aerial
parts

Fresh
aerial parts

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Passionflower can cause drowsiness. Do not take high doses
in pregnancy.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a useful Infusion (to make, p. 29 I). For

sedative for an overactive mind. occasional sleeplessness, drink up

Take I tsp with water daily. to I Vi cups (300 ml) during the evening.

Tablets are a common over-the-counter
remedy for insomnia and stress.

■ Tranquilizing effects Its ability
to reduce anxiety makes
passionflower valuable for many
nervous states, and it is used to treat
conditions as diverse as asthma,
palpitations, high blood pressure,
and muscle cramps. In each case,
its antispasmodic and tranquilizing

properties are the key to its
usefulness, reducing the overactivity
responsible for the disorder.

Self-help Uses

■ Insomnia, p. 309.

■ Sleeplessness due to
backache, p. 3 13.

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PELARGONIUM S I D 0 ID E S

120

Pelargonium sidoides (Geraniaceae)

Pelargonium, Umckaloabo

Known as umckaloabo (thought to mean “heavy cough’’
in Zulu), pelargonium has been used for centuries by
traditional South African healers as a key remedy for
coughs and respiratory infections and for gastrointestinal
disorders. The herb came to the attention of Europeans in
the early 1900s after an Englishman named Charles Stevens
was cured of his tuberculosis by a Basuto traditional healer
who had given him large doses of pelargonium root.

Pelargonium is a potent medicine for coughs,
colds, and sore throats.

Habitat and Cultivation

Pelargonium is still collected from
the wild in the eastern parts of South
Africa where it is native, though
demand for the root has led to
increased commercial cultivation.

The root is harvested at the end of
the growing season, sliced, and then
kiln dried. The plant is mostly
propagated from seed.

Related Species

Many other geranium species have
medicinal activity, including another
South African species, P. reniforme,
which is often used for the same
indications. The closely related
American cranesbill and herb robert
(Geranium maculatum and Geranium
robertianum, both p. 216) are strongly
astringent in action.

Key Constituents

■ Polyphenols (including high levels
of proanthocyanidins)

■ Coumarins

Key Actions

■ Antibacterial

■ Antiviral

■ Immune enhancing

■ Expectorant

Research

■ Antimicrobial Pelargonium
extracts have been shown to have
strong activity against a wide range
of bacteria, notably those commonly
responsible for ear, nose, throat, and
chest infections. Extracts have also
been shown to act against herpes
viruses. The root exerts a tonic effect
on the immune system.

■ Upper respiratory tract
problems German research over
the last 15-20 years has established
conclusively that pelargonium is a
safe and effective treatment for
problems affecting the upper
respiratory tract and chest. Clinical
trials have shown that it is an
effective treatment for acute and
chronic bronchitis, tonsillitis, sinusitis,
and the common cold, reducing
the intensity of symptoms and
speeding recovery.

■ Children’s remedy Unusually,
several clinical trials have focused
on treating respiratory infections

in children, and the results of these
indicate that pelargonium is a very
safe and we 11-tolerated medicine
for children (from I year old) with
coughs, colds, sore throats, and
sinus problems.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Respiratory infections Now

commonly available in health stores
and pharmacies, pelargonium can
be considered a front-line home
treatment for upper respiratory

Pelargonium

An evergreen herb growing to
10 in (25 cm), pelargonium
forms a rosette of long-stalked,
heart-shaped leaves with
striking purple-black flowers.

0 Parts Used

Root is used for its strong
antimicrobial activity.

Root is sliced
and dried
before it is used

Root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Cautions Give to children under I year of age only on professional advice.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a
valuable remedy for acute and
chronic bronchitis.

Tablets can be taken to
support and strengthen
immune function.

Fluid extract is best for children with upper respiratory tract infections.

problems and chest infections.

It combines well with elderberry
extract, also easily found and very
safe for children.

■ Traditional African remedy

Pelargonium has a much wider range
of uses in South Africa, where the
root has been used to treat not only

respiratory infections, including
tuberculosis, but conditions as diverse
as painful periods, liver disease,
and gastroenteritis.

Self-help Uses

■ Colds & congestion in children,

p. 3 18.

P E RS EA AMERICANA

Persea americana (Lauraceae)

Avocado

Avocado

An evergreen tree,
growing to 65 ft
(20 m), with dark
green, leathery leaves
and white flowers.

Many parts of the avocado tree have a use in herbal
medicine. The leaves and bark are effective remedies for
digestive problems and coughs. As well as being extremely
nutritious, the fruit has a wide range of medicinal uses.
Native peoples of Guatemala, for example, use the pulp
to stimulate hair growth, the rind to expel worms, and the
seeds to treat diarrhea. The fruit pulp is used as a baby
food in West Africa.

Avocado is very nutritious and makes an
excellent baby food.

Habitat & Cultivation

Indigenous to Central America,
avocado is widely cultivated for its
fruit in tropical and subtropical areas,
including Israel, Spain, and South
Africa. It is propagated from seed. The
leaves are harvested as needed; the
unripe fruit is picked when fully grown.

Related Species

Other Perseo species have similar fruits
to avocado and are used in a similar way.

Key Constituents

Leaves & bark:

■ Volatile oil (methylchavicol,
alpha-pinene)

■ Flavonoids

■ Tannins
Fruit pulp:

■ Unsaturated fats

■ Protein (about 25%)

■ Sesquiterpenes

■ Vitamins A, B h and B 2

Key Actions

Leaves & bark:

■ Astringent

■ Carminative

■ Relieve coughs

■ Promote menstrual flow

Fruit pulp:

■ Emollient

■ Carminative

Rind:

■ Eliminates worms

Research

■ Cholesterol Research
shows that the fruit helps lower
cholesterol levels.

■ Poisons Livestock that have
grazed on avocado leaves, fruit, or
bark have been observed to suffer
less toxic effects from snake bite
and other poisons.

■ Herpes simplex Laboratory
experiments have shown that
avocado leaf extracts strongly inhibit
the herpes simplex virus, responsible
for cold sores and genital herpes.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Leaves & bark Avocado
leaves and young bark stimulate
menstruation and can induce
abortion. The leaves are taken for
diarrhea, bloating, and gas and are
valuable for relieving coughs, for liver
obstructions, and for clearing high
uric acid levels, which cause gout.

■ Fruit The rind is used to expel
worms. The fruit pulp is considered
to have aphrodisiac properties. Used
externally, it soothes the skin. It is
applied to suppurating wounds and
to the scalp to stimulate hair growth.

■ Oil The expressed oil of the
avocado seed nourishes the skin. It
softens rough, dry, or flaking skin and,
massaged into the scalp, it improves
hair growth.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Decoction of leaves or
bark (to make, p. 291). For
diarrhea, take l A cup
(75 ml) 3 times daily.

Mashed pulp To help wounds
to heal, apply a little mashed
pulp 3 times a day.

Oil from the seed. For skin blemishes, rub
a little oil on the area daily 3 times a day.

O Caution The leaves and bark should not be used during pregnancy.

Leaves are an astringent
remedy for diarrhea.

Dried leaves

E3 Parts Used

Fresh

leaves

Bark is stripped from the
tree for use in treating
diarrhea and dysentery

Seed contains good-quality oil.

Rind has
the ability to
expel worms

Seed

Fruit

Fruit is nutritious and is
used to “draw” wounds.

12

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PIPER METHYSTICUM

Piper methysticum (Piperaceae)

Kava, Kava Kava

Kava

An evergreen shrub
climbing to 10 ft (3 m),
with fleshy stems and
heart-shaped leaves.

Kava has major ritual and cultural significance among
the peoples of the Pacific Islands, where it is as much a
part of daily social life as coffee is in the West. At
modest doses, kava is calming and tranquilizing.

At large doses, it leads to intoxication and euphoria,
though without a hangover the next day. It has a hot,
slightly aromatic and bitter taste and leaves the mouth
feeling slightly numb.

Kava has huge, tapering leaves, growing
to 10 in (25 cm) across. Its root is used
medicinally to relieve pain.

Habitat & Cultivation

Kava is an indigenous Polynesian vine
and grows throughout the Pacific
Islands as far east as Hawaii. It is
cultivated commercially in parts
of the U.S. and in Australia. Kava is
propagated from runners in late winter
or early spring and is usually grown on
frames. It needs well-drained, stony soil

and a shady position. The root is
harvested at any time of year.

Related Species

The closely related P. sanctum is native
to Mexico. It is similar to kava in many
ways; for example, it also contains
kava lactones and is traditionally taken
as a stimulant. Other related species
include matico, betel, cubeb, and
pepper (P angustifolia, P. betle,

P. cubeba and P. nigrum, pp. 249-250).

Key Constituents

■ Resin containing kava
lactones, including kawain

■ Piperidine alkaloid
(pipermethysticine)

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Reduces anxiety

■ Urinary antiseptic

■ Analgesic

■ Induces sleep

Research

■ German ban In 2002, German
regulators banned kava products
due to concerns that extracts were
toxic to the liver and had led to

20 deaths. Many other countries
followed Germany’s example.

The ban was repealed by the
German authorities in 2015. Those
campaigning against it had long
maintained that the traditional use of
kava, especially water-based extracts
of kava, were inherently safe.
Australian regulators had adopted
this approach in 2003 by allowing the
sale of water-based extracts of kava.
A rigorous reexamination of the 20
fatal cases found that only two cases
could in any way be attributed to
the use of kava.

■ Anxiety A 2003 review of kava
found that “compared with placebo,
kava extract is an effective
symptomatic treatment for anxiety.”
The authors commented that “few
adverse events were reported in the
reviewed trials.” Kava is nonaddictive,
and clinical evidence suggests it is also
a safe and effective treatment for
anxiety linked with depression,

for insomnia, and for pain relief.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional aphrodisiac Kava

is valued in the South Sea Islands as a

calming and stimulating intoxicant.

It produces a euphoric state when
taken in large quantities.

■ Relaxing remedy Kava is a safe
and proven remedy for anxiety that
does not cause drowsiness or affect
the ability to operate machinery. It is
valuable for treating muscle tension
as well as emotional stress.

■ Pain relief With its tonic,
strengthening, and mildly analgesic
properties, kava is a good remedy
for chronic pain, helping to reduce
sensitivity and to relax muscles that
are tensed in response to pain.

■ Arthritic conditions The
analgesic and cleansing diuretic effect
of Kava often makes it a beneficial
herb for treating rheumatic and
arthritic problems such as gout. It
helps to bring relief from pain and
to remove waste products from the
affected joint.

■ Antiseptic Kava is routinely used
by peoples of the South Pacific to
treat infection, especially where pain
is a key symptom. In New Guinea,

it is taken to soothe and treat sore
throats and to relieve toothache.

It makes a valuable urinary antiseptic
and will help in treating cystitis,
urethritis, urinary frequency, and
bladder irritability.

■ External uses The herb makes
a useful analgesic mouthwash for
treating toothache and mouth ulcers.

ES Parts Used

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Root relieves pain and
counters urinary infections.

Traditionally the root is
chewed and fermented
with saliva

Dried root

O Cautions Do not exceed recommended dosage or take for more than
2 months at a time. Use water-based extracts. Do not take during pregnancy.

If there is a history of liver disease, take only on professional advice. Subject to
legal restrictions in many countries.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I).

To relieve anxiety and muscle
tension, drink 14 cup (75 ml) a day.

© Tablets containing a water-based extract can be taken for anxiety.

122

PLANTAGO SPP.

Plantago spp. (Plantaginaceae)

Psyllium, Ispaghula (Hindi), Flea Seed

Produced by several Plantago species— P. ovata, P. psyllium,
and P. indica —psyllium has been used as a safe and
effective laxative for thousands of years in Europe,
North Africa, and Asia. Given their small size and brown
color, psyllium husks and seeds have been mistaken for
fleas, hence their folk name flea seed. Bland-tasting, they
swell when moistened, and have a jellylike consistency
in the mouth.

Psyllium is widely cultivated for its husks
and seeds, which are used as a remedy
for bowel problems.

Habitat & Cultivation

The three species that produce
psyllium grow throughout southern
Europe, North Africa, and Asia,
especially in India, and are extensively
cultivated. They are propagated from
seed in spring and require plenty of
sun. The seeds are harvested when
ripe in late summer and early autumn.

Related Species

Common plantain (P. major, p. 25 I)
is prescribed for diarrhea and
irritable bowel syndrome. Che qian zi
(P. asiatica ) is used in China as a
diuretic, for diarrhea, and for
bronchial congestion. The powdered
husk is given late in pregnancy to aid
normal presentation of the fetus
(head-down position in the uterus).

Key Constituents

■ Mucilage (arabinoxylan)

■ Fixed oil (2.5%)—mainly linoleic,
oleic, and palmitic fatty acids

■ Starch

Key Actions

■ Demulcent

■ Bulk laxative

■ Antidiarrheal

Research

■ Regulating bowel function

Clinical trials in the U.S., Germany,

and Scandinavia during the 1980s
have shown that psyllium has both a
laxative and an antidiarrheal action.

■ Diabetes A 1998 clinical trial with
125 patients concluded that 5 g of
psyllium taken 3 times a day helped to
lower blood-fat and -glucose levels in
people with type 2 diabetes.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Laxative Psyllium is prescribed
in conventional as well as herbal
medicine for constipation, especially
when the condition results from an
over-tensed or over-relaxed bowel.
Both husks and seeds contain high
levels of fiber (the mucilage) and
expand, becoming highly gelatinous
when soaked in water. By maintaining
a high water content within the large
intestine, they increase the bulk of
the stool, easing its passage.

■ Other bowel problems
Contrary to expectation, psyllium
is a useful remedy for diarrhea.

It is also an effective treatment
for many other bowel problems,
including irritable bowel syndrome,
ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease.
In India, psyllium is commonly used
to treat dysentery.

■ Hemorrhoid relief Psyllium

is valuable for hemorrhoids, helping
to soften the stool and to reduce
irritation of the veins.

Psyllium

An annual, growing
to I 6 in (40 cm) high,
with narrow leaves and
clusters of minute
white-brown flowers.

■ Detoxifying herb The jellylike
mucilage produced when psyllium
is soaked in water has the ability to
absorb toxins within the large
intestine. Psyllium is commonly taken
to reduce autotoxicity (the toxins are
expelled from the body with the
husks and seeds in the feces).

■ Digestive ailments The
soothing, protective effect imparted
by the mucilage-rich husks and
seeds benefits the whole gastro¬
intestinal tract. Psyllium is taken for
stomach and duodenal ulcers, and
for acid indigestion.

■ Urinary infections The
demulcent action of psyllium
extends to the urinary tract. In
India, an infusion of the seeds
(the only time this preparation
is used) is given for urethritis.

■ External uses When psyllium
husks are soaked in an infusion of
calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73),
they make an effective poultice

for external use, drawing out
infection from boils, abscesses,
and whitlows (pus-filled swellings
on the fingertips).

Self-help Uses

■ Chronic diarrhea & irritable
bowel syndrome, p. 307.

■ Constipation, p. 3 17.

■ Difficult passage of the stool
& hemorrhoids, p. 302.

E9 Parts Used

0 Key Preparations & Their Uses

Seeds should be soaked in Husks are generally powdered for
water before they are used. use in a variety of preparations.

O Cautions Do not exceed the stated dose. Always take with plenty of water.

Seeds

Powdered husk

Cold maceration For constipation, soak Capsules of powdered husk (p. 292).

20 g of seeds in % cup (200 ml) water for For hemorrhoids, take a 200 mg
10 hours. Take the whole dose at night. capsule 3 times a day.

Poultice For boils, mix 5 g of powdered husks with sufficient infusion of calendula
to make a thick paste. Apply (see p. 295) 3 times a day.

123

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

POLYGONUM M U LT I F LO R U M

Polygonum multiflorum (Polygonaceae)
FoTi, He Shou Wu (Chinese)

A Chinese tonic herb with a bittersweet taste, fo ti is
thought to concentrate qi (vital energy) in its root, so
that taking this herb gives vitality to the body It
has always been considered a rejuvenating herb,
helping to prevent aging and encouraging longevity.
Traditionally, much folklore is attached to this herb,
and large, old roots are thought to have
remarkable powers.

Fo ti is one of the oldest Chinese tonic
herbs. It is used to help lower blood
cholesterol levels.

Habitat & Cultivation

Fo ti is native to central
and southern China, and is cultivated
throughout that region. It is
propagated from seed or by root
division in spring, or from cuttings
in summer. The plant requires
well-fertilized soil and plenty of
protection from winter weather.
The roots of 3- to 4-year-old fo ti
plants are unearthed and dried
during the autumn. Older, larger
roots are prized for their
therapeutic properties, but
are generally not available to
obtain commercially.

Related Species

Bistort (P. bistorta, p. 253), one of
the most strongly astringent of all
herbs, and knotgrass (R aviculare,
p. 253) are used in European herbal
medicine. They do not have the
same tonic therapeutic properties
as P. multiflorum. In Chinese herbal
medicine, P. cuspidatum is used
to treat amenorrhea (absence
124 of periods).

Key Constituents

■ Anthraquinone glycosides

■ Stilbene glycoside

■ Polyphenols

■ Phospholipids, including lecithin

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Antioxidant

■ Mild sedative

■ Lowers cholesterol levels

■ N euro protective

Research

■ Cholesterol levels In animal
experiments in China, fo ti was
shown to significantly reduce raised
blood cholesterol levels. Also,

in a clinical trial, over 80% of patients
with high blood cholesterol who had
been taking decoctions of the root
showed an improvement.

■ Blood-sugar levels Chinese
research has revealed that fo ti
helps increase the levels of sugar
in the blood.

■ Neuroprotective Preclinical
research points to fo ti having a
stabilizing effect on brain function,
and that it might—as traditional
use would suggest—prove valuable
in slowing aging processes within
the central nervous system.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Popular tonic Although fo ti is
not the earliest tonic herb listed in
Chinese herbal medicine (it is first
mentioned in 713 ce), it has
become one of the most widely
used. It is taken regularly by
millions of people in the East

for its rejuvenating and toning

FoTi

A perennial dirmber
growing to 33 ft (10 m),
with red stems, light-
green leaves, and white
or pink flowers.

0 Parts Used

Root is highly valued in Chinese
medicine for its tonic properties.
It is unearthed in the autumn.

Dried

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Only the prepared root from Chinese herbal shops should be used.

Decoction (to make,
p. 291). As a general
tonic, take the decoction
over 2 days.

Tablets, known as
shou wu pian, are
taken in China for
their rejuvenating
properties.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
To reduce blood cholesterol
levels, take I tsp twice a day
with water.

Powder may be added to food for its tonic effect. Take 5 g a day.

properties, and to increase fertility
in both men and women.

■ Liver & kidney remedy

In Chinese herbal medicine, fo ti’s
most important use is as atonic
for the liver and kidneys. By
strengthening liver and kidney
function, it helps cleanse the blood,
enabling the qi to circulate freely
around the whole body.

■ Nerve & blood tonic Fo ti is
given in Chinese herbal medicine to
people with symptoms, such as
dizziness, weakness, numbness, and
blurred vision, that indicate inefficient
nerves and “blood deficiency.”

■ Premature aging Fo ti is

prescribed in China for people
showing signs of premature aging.

This suggests it helps the body
function in a balanced, healthy way.

In particular, there is a lot of evidence
to support the root’s use to aid
reversing hair loss and graying of
the hair.

■ Malaria The herb is prescribed
in the treatment of chronic malaria,
when it is often combined with
ginseng (Panox ginseng, p. 120),
dongquai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63),
as well as green tangerine peel
(Citrus reticulata).

REHMANNIA G LU T I N 0 S A

Rehmarmia glutinosa (Scrophulariaceae)

Rehmannia, Di Huang (Chinese)

An important Chinese tonic herb, rehmannia has figured
extensively in many traditional herbal formulas and
has an ancient history: it was referred to by Ge Hong,
the 4th-century ce Chinese physician and alchemist.
Rehmannia is a “longevity” herb and has a marked tonic
action on the liver and kidneys. Research has confirmed
its traditional use, showing that it protects the liver and
is useful for hepatitis.

Rehmannia’s appearance gave rise to its
Western folkname “Chinese foxglove.”

Habitat & Cultivation

Rehmannia grows wild on sunny
mountain slopes in northern and
northeastern parts of China,
especially in Henan province.
Rehmannia can be cultivated, in
which case it is propagated from
seed sown in autumn or spring.
The root is harvested in autumn,
after the plant has flowered.

Related Species

R. lutea is used in Chinese herbal
medicine as a diuretic.

Key Constituents

■ Iridoids

■ Polysaccharides

■ Phytosterols

■ Phenethyl glycosides

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Kidney tonic

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Antidiabetic

■ Reduces fever

■ Antihemorrhagic

Research

■ Liver remedy Chinese research
has shown rehmannia to be a very
important liver-protective herb,
preventing poisoning and liver
damage. Clinical trials in China
have demonstrated that it can

be effective in treating hepatitis.

■ Other research Chinese
research over the last 10 years
indicates that rehmannia has a
positive stabilizing effect on blood-
sugar regulation, and aids liver and
pancreatic function. Ongoing
preclinical research in China is
examining the herb’s usefulness

in preventing osteoporosis.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Raw & prepared root In Chinese
herbal medicine, the root (di huang)

is known as sheng di huang when
it is eaten raw and shu di huang
when it has been cooked in wine.

The former is the most commonly
taken remedy. Both are yin tonics
(see p. 40), but have different
therapeutic indications.

■ Sheng di huang The raw root
“cools the blood,” and is given to
help lower fever in acute and chronic
illnesses. Its cooling nature is
reflected in its use for problems such
as thirst and a red tongue that arise
from “heat patterns.” Sheng di huang
is useful for treating people with
impaired liver function and is used
specifically to treat hepatitis and
other liver conditions.

■ Shu di huang This preparation
is used specifically for blood loss
and “blood deficiency” states such
as irregular and heavy menstrual

Rehmannia

A perennial, reaching
I -2 ft (30-60 cm),
with large, sticky leaves
and purple flowers.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Caution Take only on professional advice during pregnancy.

Remedy Decoct 15 g rehmannia and 10 g
Chinese figwort (see p. 29 I). For fevers,
take % cup (150 ml) 2-3 times daily.

Shu di huang Simmer 15 g root
in 2 cups (500 ml) red wine for
20 minutes. For blood loss and
anemia, take Vx cup (100 ml) daily.

bleeding. It is warming ratherthan
cooling, and is considered to be a
prime kidney tonic.

■ Blood pressure Rehmannia is
used to treat high blood pressure.
Interestingly, while sheng di huang
appears to raise blood pressure,
shu di huang has the opposite effect.

■ Longevity Rehmannia is a
traditional and valuable tonic for
old age. It is considered to help
prevent senility.

■ Chinese formulas The herb
is an ingredient of many famous
herbal formulas, most notably
“the pill of eight ingredients,” which
contemporary Chinese herbalists
consider to “warm and invigorate
the yang of the loins.”

Self-help Uses

■ Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 3 15.

■ Weakened liver & metabolism,

p. 319.

125

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

RHEUM PALMATUM

126

Rheum palmatum (Polygonaceae)

Chinese Rhubarb, Da Huang (Chinese)

Chinese rhubarb

A thick-rhizomed
perennial growing to
10 ft (3 m), with large
palm-shaped leaves
and small flowers.

Chinese rhubarb has long been prized as the most
useful purge in herbal medicine, safe even for young
children due to its gentle action. It has been used in
China for over 2,000 years and is an extremely effective
treatment for many digestive problems. Paradoxically,
it is a laxative when taken in large doses but has a
constipating effect in small measures. The rhizome
has an astringent, unpleasant taste.

Chinese rhubarb grows best close to
water. In summer it produces clusters
of red flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to China and Tibet, where
the best-quality herb is still found,
Chinese rhubarb now also grows in
the West. It is found in the wild and
is widely cultivated. It is grown from
seed in spring or by root division
in spring or autumn and requires a
sunny position and well-drained soil.
The rhizomes of 6-10-year-old plants
are dug up in the autumn after the
stem and leaves have turned yellow.

Related Species

R. tanguticum and R. officinale have
similar uses to R. palmatum. These
3 species are considered to be
superior in action to other rhubarbs.
The familiar, edible rhubarb is
R. rhaponticum.

Key Constituents

■ Anthraquinones (about 3-5%),
rhein, aloe-emodin, emodin

■ Flavonoids (catechin)

■ Phenolic acids

■ Tannins (5-10%)

■ Calcium oxalate

Key Actions

■ Laxative

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Astringent

■ Stops bleeding

■ Antibacterial

Research

■ Anthraquinones & tannins

Chinese rhubarb’s medicinal value
is largely due to the irritant, laxative,
and purgative properties of the
anthraquinones, and in large doses
the rhizome is strongly laxative.

A 2007 Chinese study concluded
that the anthraquinones in rhubarb
“possess promising anticancer
properties and could have a broad
therapeutic potential.”

■ Antibacterial properties
Decoctions of the root have been
shown to be effective against
Staphylococcus aureus, an infectious
bacterium that causes mouth ulcers
and folliculitis (an acne-type infection
of the beard area). In laboratory
studies, rhubarb has been found
to have notable activity against
Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium
that causes stomach ulcers.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ History Chinese rhubarb was
first mentioned in the I st-century ce
Chinese text The Divine Husbandman’s
Classic, and has been grown in the
West since 1732. It is one of the few
herbs still used today in conventional
as well as herbal medicine, and is listed
in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1988.

■ Constipation Large doses of
Chinese rhubarb are combined with
carminative herbs and taken as a

9

Dried rhizome

Fresh rhizome

0 Parts Used

Rhizome contains anthraquinones, which are
laxative, and tannins, which are astringent

Rhizome is a mild
appetite stimulant and
helps improve digestion

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Do not take during
menstruation or if prone to gout or kidney stones. Not suitable for children.

Decoction (to make, p. 29 I). For
an occasional bout of constipation,
take A cup (100 ml) each evening.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). To
stimulate the appetite, take 20
drops with water twice a day.

Tablets are one of the most convenient ways of taking the herb. Take for
occasional bouts of constipation.

laxative, helping to clear the colon
without causing excessive cramping.
This is useful for treating constipation
where the muscles of the large
intestine are weak.

■ Diarrhea Small doses of the root
are astringent, relieving irritation of
the inner lining of the gut, thus
reducing diarrhea.

■ Other uses Chinese rhubarb
can be applied to burns, boils, and
carbuncles. The herb acts as atonic
and mild appetite stimulant and
serves as a useful mouthwash for
mouth ulcers.

Self-help Use

Constipation, p. 307.

R H0DI 0LA ROSEA

Rhodiola rosea (Crassulaceae)

Rhodiola, Golden Root

An Arctic plant that thrives in extreme environments,
rhodiola's rose-colored roots have pronounced medicinal
activity, enhancing the ability of the body to deal with
stresses of all kinds. An adaptogen, similar to ginseng
(Panax ginseng, p. I 18), rhodiola also acts on the central
nervous system, supporting memory and concentration
under conditions of stress, and helping to relieve nervous
exhaustion and mild to moderate depression.

Rhodiola root is most commonly taken to
improve mental and physical performance.

Habitat and Cultivation

Rhodiola is indigenous to
mountainous and Arctic regions of
the northern hemisphere, including
Canada, Scotland, Scandinavia, Russia,
and Alaska. Rhodiola is still mostly
collected from the wild, threatening
its long-term survival in some regions,
though it is now cultivated in Canada,
Norway, and Finland.

Related Species

The central Asian R. quadrifida is used
in Mongolia to enhance strength and
vigor. R. crenuloto and R. roseo are
used in Chinese medicine, though
across China many different species
of Rhodiola are used to alleviate
fatigue and protect against the cold.
Chinese research into R. crenulata
indicates that this species aids
endurance and has a protective
activity against radiation.

Key Constituents

■ Phenylpropanoids (rosavins—
occuring only in Rhodiola rosea )

■ Salidroside

■ Flavonoids

■ Monoterpenes (including rosiridin)

■ Triterpenes

Key Actions

■ Adaptogen

■ Antidepressant

■ Aids mental performance

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

■ Adaptogen Rhodiola is an
unusual medicine—an adaptogen
that combines the ability to promote
physical and mental endurance with
antidepressant and anti-inflammatory
activity. Though large-scale clinical
trials are lacking, research shows that
rhodiola root increases the capacity
to resist physical and mental fatigue.

■ Clinical trials In a 2000
Armenian clinical trial, young healthy
hospital doctors working night shifts
were given a rhodiola extract. After
2 weeks, those taking the extract
showed significantly fewer signs of
mental fatigue, including better levels
of concentration and short-term
memory, than those taking a placebo.
In a 2015 U.S. clinical trial, 57 adults
with moderate depression were
given rhodiola or sertraline, a
conventional antidepressant.

Both medicines proved effective,
but those taking rhodiola reported
fewer side effects.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Key traditional uses In Europe
and Asia, the central core of
rhodiola’s use in traditional medicine
has always been its power to
increase endurance and work rate,
and the capacity to cope with high

Rhodiola

A fleshy perennial
growing to 16 in (40 cm)
in height with thick oblong
leaves and clusters of
yellow flowers.

E3 Parts Used

Root helps to support physical
and mental endurance and to
counter the effects of stress.

✓

Dried rhizome

Fresh rhizome

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Cautions Can cause irritability and sleep disturbance. Not advisable in manic and
bipolar disorders.

Decoction Take 2Zi tsp twice a day
to promote physical endurance.

Tablets take as recommended by
supplier for lowered mood and vitality.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). To support memory and concentration, take
!/2 tsp 2-3 times a day.

altitude and winter cold. The roots
have also been taken to promote
longevity, ease depression, and treat
infection. Rhodiola is now most
commonly taken to improve mental
and physical performance and to
protect against the harmful effects of
ongoing stress.

■ Russian medicine Rhodiola
became an official medicine in Russia
in 1969, being recommended for a wide
range of health problems, not only as
an adaptogen (see Research ), but for
psychiatric and neurological problems,
such as depression and schizophrenia.

■ Other uses Rhodiola is
traditionally considered to help
improve fertility in both men and
women. In Siberia, rhodiola roots
are given to marrying couples to
promote fertility and the health of
their future children. In Mongolia,
alongside its use as atonic, rhodiola
is given for infections such as
bronchitis and pneumonia, and

is also used as a mouthwash for
bad breath.

Self-help Use

■ Maintaining vitality, p. 3 19.

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KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS

Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Rosemary

Rosemary is a well-known and greatly valued herb
that is native to southern Europe. It has been used
since antiquity to improve and strengthen the memory.
To this day it is burned in the homes of students in
Greece who are about to take exams. Rosemary has
a longstanding reputation as atonic, invigorating herb,
imparting a zest for life that is to some degree reflected
in its distinctive aromatic taste.

Rosemary was a symbol of fidelity between
lovers, on account of its ability to improve
the memory.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to the Mediterranean, rosemary
grows freely in much of southern
Europe and is cultivated throughout
the world. It is propagated from seed
or cuttings in spring and prefers a
warm, moderately dry climate and
a sheltered site. The branches are
gathered during the summer after
flowering and dried in the shade.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (1-2%) containing
borneol, camphene, camphor,
cineole

■ Flavonoids (apigenin, diosmin)

■ Tannins

■ Rosmarinic acid

■ Diterpenes (including carnosic
acid and carnosol)

128

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Stimulant

■ Astringent

■ Nervine

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antioxidant

Research

■ General circulation A 201 I

study published in Phytotherapy
Research found that rosemary exerted
anti-inflammatory and protective
effects on the inner lining of blood
vessels in young adults. Such research
supports the understanding that many
active compounds in rosemary
support a healthy circulation. A
small 2006 clinical trial in Germany
concluded (in line with traditional
usage) that rosemary raised blood
pressure in people suffering from
low blood pressure. All those taking
rosemary also reported feeling
better at the end of the trial.

■ Other actions Japanese
laboratory research in 2003 found
that diterpenes within rosemary
(carnosic acid and carnosol) strongly
stimulated nerve growth factor,
suggesting that rosemary may
stimulate nerve repair. A 2015 review
in Cancer Letters stated that these
constituents also had “promising
results of anticancer activity.”

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Circulatory stimulant

Rosemary has a central place in
European herbal medicine as a
warming, tonic remedy that
stimulates blood flow throughout
the body, especially in those with
low blood pressure. It is thought to
promote blood flow to the head,
thus improving memory and
concentration. It may be taken to
relieve migraine and headaches and
encourages hair growth and health.

■ Poor circulation Thought to
raise low blood pressure, the herb

Rosemary

A strongly aromatic
evergreen shrub
growing to 6 'A ft (2 m),
with narrow, dark
green, pinelike leaves.

£3 Parts Used

Leaves are gathered in summer
and used in preparations or distilled
for their oil.

Volatile oil is most
concentrated in
the leaves

Dried leaves

Fresh leaves

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Caution Do not take the essential oil internally except under a professional
practitioner’s supervision.

Tincture (to make, p. 292)
is an excellent tonic. For
stress, take 40 drops twice
daily with water.

W

Essential oil To improve
concentration, burn
several drops in an oil
burner (to use, p. 297).

«

Infusion (to make, p. 291). To relieve headaches, take 2'A tsp every 3 hours.
The infusion, rubbed into the scalp, improves hair growth.

is valuable for fainting and weakness
associated with deficient circulation.

■ Restorative Rosemary aids
recovery from long-term stress
and chronic illness. It is thought
to stimulate the adrenal glands
and is used specifically for debility,
especially when accompanied by
poor circulation and digestion.

■ Uplifting herb Rosemary is
often prescribed for people who
are stressed and “failing to thrive.”
Valued as an herb that raises the

spirits, it is useful for mild to
moderate depression.

■ Other uses Applied as a lotion
or diluted essential oil, rosemary
eases aching, rheumatic muscles.
Add the infusion, or essential oil,
to bathwater for a reviving soak.

Self-help Uses

■ Migraine, p. 309.

■ Premenstrual syndrome, p. 3 15.

■ Sore throats, p. 3 I I.

■ Tired & aching muscles, p. 3 12.

S A LI X ALBA

Salix olbo (Salicaceae)

White Willow

Justly famous as the original source of salicylic acid
(the forerunner of aspirin), white willow and closely
related species have been used for thousands of years
in Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America to relieve
joint pain and manage fevers. Dioscorides, a Greek
physician in the I st century ce, suggested taking "willow
leaves, mashed with a little pepper and drunk with wine”
to relieve lower back pain.

White willow is used in Britain to make
cricket bats. The bark has anti-inflammatory
properties.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to much of Europe, white
willow is also found in North Africa
and Asia, thriving in damp areas, such
as on riverbanks. It is propagated
from semi-ripe cuttings in summer
or from hardwood cuttings in winter.
The trees are frequently pollarded
and bark is stripped from branches
of 2- to 5-year-old trees in spring.

Related Species

Many Salix species, for example
crack willow (S. fragilis), are used
interchangeably with white willow.

S. acmophylla is used on the Indian
subcontinent as a remedy for
fevers. In North American herbal
medicine, black willow (S. nigra )
is given as an anaphrodisiac
(sexual depressant).

Key Constituents

■ Phenolic glycosides
(up to 11%)

■ Salicin

■ Flavonoids

■ Polyphenols

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Analgesic

■ Reduces fever

■ Antirheumatic

■ Astringent

Research

■ Salicylic acid & aspirin Salicylic
acid, a strongly anti-inflammatory
and analgesic compound, was first
isolated from salicin in willow bark
in 1838. It was the forerunner of
aspirin, a chemical drug developed in
Germany during 1899. Salicylic acid
(and salicin) has many of the
properties of aspirin but causes
notably fewer side effects. As such,

it is now being widely researched as
an alternative to aspirin-based anti¬
inflammatory medicines such as
ibuprofen. Unlike aspirin, salicylic
acid does not thin the blood, and
any problems it might cause within
the digestive tract are likely to
be minor.

■ Clinical trials Over the last 15
years, clinical trials have shown that
high-strength willow bark extract
offers an effective alternative to
mainstream anti-inflammatory
medicines, particularly in treating
conditions such as osteoarthritis and
lower back pain. In a 2008 clinical
trial published in Phytomedicine,
among people with arthritis of the
hip or knee, aged between 50 and
75, those taking willow bark extract,
after 6 weeks, were rated by
doctors as doing significantly better
than those taking standard aspirin-
based medication. Those taking
willow bark reported far fewer

side effects.

White willow

A deciduous tree
growing to 80 ft
(25 m), with green
tapering leaves, and
catkins in spring.

Bark is dark
gray and deeply
fissured

Fresh bark

Dried bark

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

E3 Parts Used

Bark is stripped from
young branches and used
fresh or dried.

Tablets often also contain
other herbs. Take for arthritis.

Decoction (to make, p. 29 I). For painful joints and aching rheumatic muscles,
take l A cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.

St John’s wort

O Caution Avoid if allergic to aspirin. Do not
take during pregnancy or if breastfeeding.

Not suitable for young children. Rarely, may
cause gastrointestinal upset.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For rheumatism, take 'A tsp
with water 3 times a day.

Remedy Make a decoction (see p. 29 I)
with 10 g each of white willow, St John’s
wort, and cramp bark. For aching muscles,
drink % cup (150 ml) twice a day.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Joint remedy White willow is
an excellent remedy for arthritic and
rheumatic pain affecting the back,
and joints such as the knees and hips,
though large doses may be required,
such as a standardized tablet. In
combination with other herbs and
dietary changes, it relieves inflammation
and swelling, and improves mobility in
painful or creaky joints.

■ Fevers & pain White willow
is taken to manage high fevers. It

may also be used to ease headaches
and head pain.

■ Menopause A cooling herb that
reduces sweating, willow bark can be
helpful in controlling symptoms such
as hot flashes and night sweats.

Self-help Uses

■ Arthritis & inflamed
joints, p. 3 13.

■ Back pain due to joint
inflammation, p. 3 13.

■ Hot flashes & night
sweats, p. 3 16.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

SALVIA MILTIORRHIZA

Salvia miltiorrhiza (Lamiaceae)

Dan Shen, Chinese Sage

Recent scientific research supports dan shen’s traditional
usage as a remedy for heart and circulatory problems such
as angina and palpitations. The Divine Husbandman’s Classic
( Shen'nong Bencaojing), the earliest of all Chinese herbal
texts, listed dan shen as an herb that “invigorates the
blood,’’ and it is still used as a circulatory remedy. In
particular, it is taken for period pain and other conditions
resulting from circulatory congestion.

Dan shen is an important circulatory
stimulant. It is sold in herbal markets
across China for use in medicinal formulas.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to China, dan shen is now
cultivated in northeastern China
and Inner Mongolia. It requires
moist, sandy soil and is propagated
by root division in spring. The root is
harvested from late autumn through
early spring.

Related Species

Sage (S. officinalis, p. 13 I) is closely
related, but is used for an entirely
different range of medical problems.
In Mexico, the related species
S. divinorum is used as a hallucinogen.

Key Constituents

■ Diterpenes (tanshinones)

■ Phenolic compounds

■ Volatile oil

■ Vitamin E

130

Key Actions

■ Tonic to heart and circulation

■ Anticoagulant

■ Dilates the blood vessels

■ Sedative

■ Antibacterial

Research

■ Tanshinones There has been
extensive research into dan shen in
China, and the tanshinones have been
shown to have a profound effect on
coronary circulation, reducing the
symptoms of angina and improving
heart function.

■ Heart attack The whole herb
(rather than isolated constituents)
has been used in China to assist
patients who are recovering from
a heart attack, and it appears to
support heart function at this
critical time. Clinical trials in China,
however, have shown that dan shen
is most effective when taken as

a preventative, rather than as a
remedy after the heart attack
has taken place.

■ Other research Many recent
clinical trials involving dan shen have
used Chinese herbal combinations,
ratherthan dan shen alone, so it is
hard to draw conclusions. However,
they do provide further evidence
of dan shen’s usefulness in cardio¬
vascular problems such as high blood
pressure, angina, and heart disease.
Unusually, two clinical trials in China
(2012) found that injected extracts
of dan shen were helpful in pre¬
eclampsia, a serious condition during
pregnancy which involves fluid
retention and high blood pressure.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Circulatory stimulant Dan

shen has been esteemed by the
Chinese for thousands of years as a
circulatory stimulant. Like hawthorn
('Crataegus oxyacantha, p. 87), it is
a safe, effective remedy for many

Dan shen

A hardy perennial
growing to 32 in
(80 cm), with toothed
oval leaves and clusters
of purple flowers.

0 Parts Used

Root is an ancient
Chinese remedy for
circulatory disorders.

Dried

chopped root

Dried root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions For serious circulatory or heart problems, take only under professional
supervision. The tincture may produce digestive and skin reactions. Avoid in pregnancy.

Tincture is used by herbalists
to treat angina and other
circulatory problems.

Decoction (to make, p. 291).
For painful periods, take l A cup
(75 ml) up to 3 times a day.

circulatory problems. It particularly
benefits coronary circulation,
opening up the arteries and improving
blood flow to the heart, and is
therefore helpful in treating coronary
heart disease. Though it does not
lower blood pressure, dan shen
relaxes the blood vessels and
improves circulation throughout
the body.

■ Circulatory congestion Dan

shen is used traditionally to treat
conditions caused by blood

stagnation, primarily those affecting
the lower abdomen, such as absent
or painful periods and fibroids.

■ Sedative The sedative action of
dan shen helps to calm the nerves,
and it is therefore helpful in treating
angina, a condition made worse by
anxiety and worry. Palpitations,
insomnia, and irritability also benefit
from dan shen’s sedative properties.

Self-help Use

■ Palpitations, p. 302.

SALVIA OFFICINALIS

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Sage

Sage’s botanical name is a clue to its medicinal importance:
Salvia comes from salvare, meaning “to cure’’ in Latin.

A medieval saying echoes this: “Why should a man die
while sage grows in his garden?” Today, sage is an excellent
remedy for sore throats, poor digestion, and irregular
periods, and it is also taken as a gently stimulating
tonic. It has a slightly warm, noticeably bitter, and
astringent taste.

Sage is known most commonly os a
culinary herb, but it is also of great
medicinal importance.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to the Mediterranean, sage
is cultivated all around the world,
thriving in sunny conditions. It is
grown from seed in spring and the
plants are replaced after 3 to 4 years.
The leaves are picked in summer.

Related Species

In all, there are about 500 species of
Salvia. Spanish sage (S. lavandulifolia ) is
the most familiar culinary variety and
does not contain thujone. Two close
relatives of S. officinalis are dan shen
(S. miltiorrhiza, p. 130) and clary sage
(S. sclarea, p. 265).

Key Constituents

■ Essential oil (1-2%)

■ Diterpenes

■ Triterpenes

■ Phenolic compounds
including rosmarinic acid

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Astringent

■ Clears mucus

■ Nerve tonic

■ Estrogenic

Research

■ Nerve tonic Ongoing research
taking place in the UK provides
strong support for the traditional use
of sage to enhance memory. In the
most recent study (2008), healthy
volunteers averaging 73 years of age
showed a significant improvement in
memory processing and accuracy of
attention after taking a single dose of
sage extract. Interestingly, a moderate
dose, equivalent to 2.5 g of sage,
proved most effective, more so than
higher doses.

■ Sore throat In a randomized trial
published during 2006, a sage throat
spray was found to relieve throat
pain in people who had acute
throat infection.

■ Hormonal activity The herb’s
longstanding use during menopause
has also been researched. In the
most recent study, undertaken in
Switzerland (201 I), women with

at least 12 months of hot flashes
reported an average 64% decrease
in symptoms after 8 weeks of
taking sage.

■ Lowering blood fat levels

A clinical trial published in 201 I in
Phytotherapy Research concluded
that “sage may be effective and safe
in the treatment of hyperlipidemia.”
All blood fat markers showed
improvement in those taking sage.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Sore throat Sage’s combination
of antiseptic and astringent action

/

Sage

An evergreen
growing to 32 in
(80 cm), with square
stems and hairy grey-
green or purple leaves.

Leaves have valuable
antiseptic and astringent
properties.

Purple sage,
S. officinalis
purpurascens, is
the preferred
medicinal variety

Fresh

leaves

Dried leaves

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take medicinal doses during pregnancy or while
breastfeeding, or if epileptic.

Infusion (to make,
p. 291). Use as a gargle
for sore throats up to
3 times a day.

Tincture (to make,
p. 292) is a digestive
tonic. Take 40 drops with
water twice a day.

Fresh sage leaves

are a useful first aid
remedy. Rub on stings
and bites.

ES Parts Used

makes it ideal as a gargle for sore
throats and throat infections. It can
equally be used for mouth ulcers
and sore gums.

■ Hormonal remedy A valuable
remedy for irregular and scanty
periods, sage encourages better
blood flow at menstruation. The
herb is thought to reduce or prevent
sweating and can prove particularly
effective during menopause.

It also helps to reduce hot flashes
and night sweats and it has a
calming, relaxant aspect. Sage will
decrease breast-milk production,

and is traditionally taken by a mother
while weaning.

■ Digestive tonic Sage has a long
traditional use as a digestive aid,
supporting stomach health and
promoting better digestion
and absorption.

Self-help Uses

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Diarrhea, p. 307.

■ Hot flashes & night
sweats, p. 3 16.

■ Mouth ulcers, p. 306.

■ Sore throats, p. 3 I I.

13

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

SA/V16UCUS NIGRA

132

Sambucus nigra (Caprifoliaceae)

Elder

Elder has more folklore attached to it than almost
any other European plant, except perhaps mandrake
(.Mandragora officinarum, p. 232). Chopping elder
branches was considered dangerous in rural England
as it was believed that the tree was inhabited by the
Elder Mother, and to avoid her wrath, woodcutters
would recite a placatory rhyme. Elder is a valuable
remedy for flu, colds, and chest conditions.

Elder was traditionally known as “Nature’s
medicine chest.”

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Europe, elder thrives
in woods, hedges, and in open
areas. It is now found in most
temperate regions, and is often
cultivated. Elder is propagated from
cuttings in spring. The flowering
tops are harvested in late spring
and the berries are picked in early
autumn.

Key Constituents

Berries:

■ Flavonoids

■ Anthocyanins

■ Lectins

■ Vitamins A and C
Flowers:

■ Flavonoids

■ Anthocyanins

■ Triterpenes

■ Volatile oil (07%)

■ Mucilage

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Antiviral

■ Clears mucus

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Diuretic

■ Increases sweating

Research

■ Elder berries Israeli research
from 1995 found 90% of people
that were given elderberry extract
recovered in 2-3 days, while 90%
of those taking the placebo took up
to 6 days. Further clinical trials have
supported these findings—a 2014
review concluded there was “good
scientific evidence” that elderberry
extract was an effective treatment
for influenza. Although the safety
profile of elderberry has not been
established, evidence indicates it is

a safe influenza remedy for adults
and children.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Coughs & colds The berries have
an established antiviral activity, helping
prevent and speed recovery from
upper respiratory infections, such

as colds and flu. Following traditional
usage, the flowers are taken to
stimulate sweating and relieve fever
by cooling the body. An elderflower
infusion makes a soothing remedy
when suffering from cold and flu.

■ Congestion & allergies The
flowering tops tone the mucous linings
of the nose and throat (increasing
their resistance to infection) and are
prescribed for chronic congestion,
ear infections, and allergies. Infusions
with other herbs can reduce severity
of hay fever attacks if taken some
months before the season.

■ Arthritis By encouraging
sweating and urine production,
elder flowering tops aid removal

Elder

A deciduous tree
growing to 33 ft
(10 m), with oval
leaves, cream flowers,
and blue-black berries.

Fresh berries

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions None known. Do not consume unripe berries.

Infusion of flowering tops
(to make, p. 29 I). For colds, drink
3 A cup (150 ml) 3 times a day.

Cream made with
flowering tops (see
p. 296). Apply freely
to chapped skin. Tincture of flowering tops

(to make, p. 292). For hay fever, take
I tsp with water 3^4 times a day.

Decoction of berries (to make, p. 29 I). For rheumatic aches, take V% cup
(100 ml) 3 times a day.

Flowers

reduce

inflammation

Fresh

flowering

tops

Dried flowering tops

Berries are nutritious and
may be used as a mild laxative.

MINI

Dried berries

Berries contain
vitamins A and C

0 Parts Used

Flowering tops

reduce fevers and help
coughs, colds, and flu.

of waste products and are of value
in arthritic conditions.

■ Other uses Flowers and berries
are mildly laxative and appear to help
lower blood pressure. The flowers
are thought to help control diabetes.
The berries appear to enhance
immune function.

Self-help Uses

■ Allergic rhinitis, including hay
fever, p. 300.

■ Colds, flu, & fevers, p. 3 I I.

■ Colds & congestion in children,

p. 3 18.

■ Earache due to chronic
congestion, p. 3 12.

SCHISANDRA C H I N £ N S I S

Schisandra chinensis (Schisandraceae)

Schisandra, Wu Wei Zi (Chinese)

Schisandra ranks along with other Chinese tonic herbs
as an excellent tonic and restorative. It helps in stressful
times and increases zest for life. The berries tone the
kidneys and sexual organs, protect the liver, strengthen
nervous function, and cleanse the blood. The name wu
wei zi means "5-flavored herb,” since this herb reputedly
tastes of the 5 main elemental energies (see p. 40). It
has a sour, salty, and slightly warm taste.

Schisandra is one of China’s most important
tonic herbs, widely taken as a sexual tonic.

Habitat & Cultivation

Schisandra is cultivated in north¬
eastern China, especially in the
provinces of Jilin, Lianoning,
Heilongjiang, and Hebei. It is
propagated from seed in spring.

The fruit is harvested in autumn
when it is fully ripe.

Related Species

Though less therapeutically
active than schisandra, the berries
of the related nan wu wei zi
(S. sphenanthera ) are commonly
used in Chinese medicine for the
treatment of acute coughs.

Key Constituents

■ Lignans (schizandrin,
deoxyschizandrin, gomisin)

■ Triterpeneso

■ Volatile oil

■ Vitamins C and E

Key Actions

■ Nerve tonic

■ Adaptogenic

■ Protects liver

Research

■ Aiding performance Healthy
adults given schisandra extract
showed a marked improvement

in both physical and mental stamina.
Russian sailors given schisandra had
an increased capacity to maintain and
endure normal working regimens,
and Russian factory workers were
reported to have decreased
sickness levels.

■ Protecting the liver The lignans
have been shown to have pronounced
antihepatoxic (liver-protective) action.
Up to 30 different lignans have been
identified in schisandra, which all
contribute to this effect. One clinical
trial reported a 76% success rate in
treating patients with hepatitis, with
no side effects being noted.

■ Nervous system Schisandra is
known to stimulate the nervous
system, increasing the speed of reflex
nervous responses and improving
mental clarity. The berries have a
mild antidepressant activity and

are thought to improve nervous
irritability and forgetfulness. In Russia,
schisandra has been used to treat
people with severe mental health
disorders including schizophrenia and
chronic alcoholism. Clinical studies
in 1967 found that those taking a
schisandra tincture became more
sociable and less emotionally tense.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Tonic Schisandra is a major tonic
herb and acts throughout the body,
strengthening and toning many
different organs.

■ Sexual stimulant Probably best
known as a sexual tonic for both men

Schisandra

An aromatic woody
vine reaching up to
26 ft (8 m), with pink
flowers and spikes of
red berries.

E3 Parts Used

Berries are chewed
every day for 100 days
as atonic in China

Fruit helps the body
to cope with stress.

Dried fruit

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Large doses can cause heartburn. Can interact with some medicines.
Take only on professional advice, if taking prescribed medicines.

Decoction (to make, p. 29 I). For coughs and
shortness of breath, decoct 5 g crushed
berries with A cup (100 ml) of water.

Divide into 3 doses and drink during a
24-hour period.

and women, schisandra reputedly
increases the secretion of sexual
fluids and, in men, it also improves
sexual stamina.

■ Liver treatment herb
Schisandra has proven benefits for
the liver and is used in the treatment
of hepatitis and poor liver function.

■ Sedative Although a stimulant,
schisandra is used in Chinese medicine
to “quiet the spirit and calm the heart.”
It is given for insomnia and dream-
disturbed sleep and is a fine example
of how adaptogenic herbs often work
in apparently contradictory ways to
restore normal body function.

■ Mental & emotional disorders
In Russia and China, schisandra berries
have traditionally been prescribed to
treat mental illnesses such as neuroses.
They are also given to improve
concentration and coordination

and are a traditional remedy for
forgetfulness and irritability.

■ Respiratory infections The
herb is used in the treatment of

respiratory infections such as
chronic coughs, shortness of
breath, and wheezing.

■ Balancing fluid levels

Schisandra is used to tone up
and strengthen kidney function
and to help the body balance
levels of fluid, making it helpful
for treating night sweats, thirst,
and urinary frequency.

■ Skin rashes Recently, Chinese
herbalists have started to use
schisandra to treat urticaria (hives)
and other skin problems, including
eczema. It is usually given for
these conditions in the form

of a medicinal wine.

■ Additional uses Schisandra
is used for a wide variety of
other physical disorders, including
diarrhea and dysentery, as well

as to help improve failing sight
and hearing.

Self-help Use

■ Low sex drive, p. 3 16.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

134

SCUTELLARIA BAICALENSIS

Scutellaria baicalensis syn. S. macrantha (Lamiaceae)

Baical Skullcap, Huang Quin

Baical skullcap

A perennial growing
to 1-4 ft (30-120 cm)
high, with lance-shaped
leaves and purplish-
blue flowers.

In 1973, 92 wooden tablets were discovered in a
2nd-century ce tomb in northwestern China. Among
other herbs listed in prescriptions for decoctions,
tinctures, pills, and ointments was Baical skullcap. The
herb has had an established role in Chinese herbal
medicine at least from that time, and is one of the
main remedies for “hot and damp” conditions, such
as dysentery and diarrhea.

Baical skullcap is an important medicinal
plant in China and is also cultivated as
an ornamental.

Habitat & Cultivation

Baical skullcap is found in China,

Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Russia.

It thrives on sunny, grassy slopes and
open areas between 330 ft (100 m)
and 5,900 ft (1,800 m) above sea
level. Baical skullcap is propagated
from seed sown in autumn or spring.
The roots of 3- to 4-year-old plants
are harvested in autumn or spring.

Related Species

Skullcap (S. lateriflora, p. 135)
is a close relation. It is a Native
North American remedy for
anxiety and stress.

Research

■ Flavonoids Baical skullcap has
been quite widely researched in
China, and it is clear that it has
marked anti-inflammatory, anti¬
allergy, and antioxidant effects,
all 3 actions mostly being due to
the flavonoids.

■ Clinical evidence Clinical studies
investigating different applications of
Baical skullcap show the herb has
promise in the treatment of
infections, including bronchitis,

and dysentery, high blood pressure,
chronic hepatitis, and allergic rhinitis
(hay fever). The root has anti cancer
activity, with studies showing small-
scale positive results in patients with
lung and prostate cancer.

■ Diabetes The herb may be useful
for problems arising from diabetes,
including cataracts.

■ Weight-loss aid A South Korean
clinical trial in 201 I looked at the
effectiveness of a baical skullcap and
platycodon (Platycodon grandiflorum)
combination in treating obesity. After
2 months, the group taking the herbs
had lost significantly more weight than
the placebo group.

Traditional &

Current Uses

£2 Parts Used

Root is harvested
when the plant is
3-4 years old in
autumn or spring.

Root has anti¬
inflammatory
properties

Dried root

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Best taken under professional supervision.

Baical skullcap

Self-heal

Decoction (to make, p. 291).
For feverish chest colds, drink
H cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.

Remedy For headaches, V^‘
decoct 15 g root with 10 g X
self-heal (see p. 291).

Drink H cup (75 ml)

3 times a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For hay fever,
take 40 drops with water 3 times a day.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonoids (about 12%)—
baicalin, wogoniside

■ Sterols

■ Benzoic acid

Key Actions

■ Sedative

■ Antiallergenic

■ Antibacterial

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Cold & bitter herb In

traditional Chinese medicine,

Baical skullcap is “cold” and “bitter”
(see p. 42). It is prescribed in China
for hot and thirsty conditions such
as high fevers, coughs with thick
yellow phlegm, and gastrointestinal
infections that cause diarrhea,
such as dysentery. It is also given
to people suffering from painful
urinary conditions.

■ Circulatory remedy Baical
skullcap is a valuable remedy for
circulation. In combination with other
herbs, it is used to treat high blood
pressure, arteriosclerosis, varicose
veins, and easy bruising.

■ Other uses Applied to the
skin, Baical skullcap treats sores,
swelling, and boils. It is also given
for circulatory problems that arise
from diabetes.

■ Allergic conditions The herb is
useful for treating allergic conditions
such as asthma, hay fever, eczema, and
hives. The flavonoids in particular
inhibit the inflammatory processes in
the body that lead to allergic reactions.

Self-help Uses

■ Allergic rhinitis including hay
fever, p. 300.

■ Wheezing, p. 301.

SCUTELLARIA LATERIFLORA

Scutellaria lateriflora (Lamiaceae)
Skullcap, Virginian Skullcap, Mad Dog

A Native American herb, skullcap was traditionally taken
for menstrual problems. It was also used in purification
ceremonies when menstrual taboos had been broken.
Skullcap became well known in 19th-century America
as a treatment for rabies, hence its folk name “mad dog.’’
Today, it is mainly used as a tonic and sedative for the
nerves in times of stress. It has a bitter, slightly
astringent taste.

Skullcap is easy to recognize. It has pairs
of pink to blue flowers and distinctive
seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation

A native of North America, skullcap
still grows wild in much of the U.S.
and Canada. It thrives in damp
conditions, for example on
riverbanks, and needs plenty of
sun. Skullcap can be propagated
from seed or by root division in
spring. The aerial parts of 3- to
4-year-old plants are harvested
in summer, when in flower.

Related Species

There are around 100 species of
Scutellaria. In the past, European
skullcap (S. galericulata ) and lesser
skullcap (S. minor ) have been used
in a similar way to S. lateriflora, but
today they are considered to have
a less important therapeutic action.
Baical skullcap (S. baicalensis, p. 134)
is also closely related.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonoids (scutellarin)

■ Bitter iridoids (catalpol)

■ Volatile oil

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Sedative

■ Nervine tonic

■ Antispasmodic

■ Mild bitter

Research

■ Anxiety remedy Little research
has been carried out on this species
of Scutellaria despite its long use in
North American and British herbal
medicine to ease anxiety and stress.
A small English study published in
201 I tested skullcap against placebo
in reducing anxiety in 43 “non-anxious”
people. Those taking skullcap showed
significantly better overall mood
levels at the end of the 2 weeks

of the study.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Native American cure The

Cherokee used skullcap to stimulate
menstruation, relieve breast pain, and
encourage expulsion of the placenta.

■ 19th-century remedy The

Physiomedicalists (followers of a
19th-century Anglo-American school
of herbal medicine) first discovered
skullcap’s use as a nervine. They
recognized that it has a “deeper”
action on the nervous system than
many other herbs and used it for
hysteria, epilepsy, convulsions, and
rabies, as well as for serious mental
illnesses such as schizophrenia.

■ Current uses Today, skullcap is
taken mainly as a nerve tonic and for
its restorative properties. It helps
support and nourish the nervous
system, and calms and relieves stress
and anxiety. Its antispasmodic action
makes it useful for conditions where

Skullcap

A perennial growing
to 2 ft (60 cm), with
an erect, many-
branched stem and
pink to blue flowers.

E3 Parts Used

Aerial parts are

harvested in summer
for use in a number of
calming preparations.

Seed capsules,
when dry,
look like
skullcaps

Fresh aerial parts

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Q Cautions Best taken under professional supervision.

Infusion (to make,
p. 29 I). For short-term
relief of stress and
anxiety, take 2Vi tbsp
3 times a day.

Tincture (to make,
p. 292). For nervous
tension and headaches,
take Vi tsp with water
twice a day.

Capsules (to make,
p. 292). For nervous
exhaustion, take a 200 mg
capsule twice daily.

Tablets, often containing other sedative herbs, are taken for insomnia.

stress and worry cause muscular
tension. Skullcap is often prescribed
on its own, or with other sedative
herbs, to treat insomnia, and it is also
given for period pain.

Self-help Uses

■ Anxiety, depression, & tension,

p. 308.

■ Migraine, p. 309.

■ Panic attacks & headaches, p. 308.

135

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

S E R E N 0 A R E P E N S

136

Serenoa repens syn. Sabal serrulata (Palmaceae)

Saw Palmetto

Saw palmetto berries were eaten by Native North
Americans and animals. According to legend, on seeing the
animals grow “sleek and fat,” European settlers tried
the berries and attributed medicinal properties to them.
The fruit pulp was used as a tonic from the 19th century
onward, and today it is used to help in debility, for
urinary tract problems, and for reducing an enlarged
prostate gland.

Saw palmetto has dark purple to black
berries, growing in the center of the leaf fans.

Habitat & Cultivation

Saw palmetto is indigenous to North
America and can be found growing
in sand dunes along the Atlantic and
Caribbean coasts from South Carolina
to Texas. It is propagated from seed
in spring and needs well-drained soil
and plenty of sun. The berries are
harvested when ripe in autumn, then
dried, often with the seeds removed.

Related Species

The Maya of Central America used
the roots or leaves of S.jopo, another
small palm, as a remedy for dysentery
and abdominal pain. The crushed
roots of S. adamsonii were used by
the Houma, who also lived in Central
America, as an eye lotion.

Key Constituents

■ Lipid (fat) content includes
phytosterols

■ Flavonoids

■ Polysaccharides

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Antispasmodic

■ Diuretic

■ Male tonic

Research

■ Benign prostatic
hypertrophy (BPH) Extensive
clinical research, mostly in Europe,
has shown that a lipid or fat extract
of saw palmetto is effective in
reversing enlargement of the
prostate gland. In the process,

the extract reduces urinary retention
and eases urine flow. In many
European countries saw palmetto
extract is a standard treatment for
enlarged prostate. It is not clear
how extracts of the herb work.

■ Combination with nettle root
In the late 1990s two clinical trials
gave men with early stage BPH a
combination of saw palmetto and
nettle root. One trial compared the
herbs with placebo, the other with
finasteride, a standard conventional
treatment for BPH. Results for the
herb combination in both trials were
very good, with a clear improvement
in symptoms in respect to placebo,
and similar outcomes for those taking
the herbs or finasteride, but those
taking the herbs experienced fewer
side effects.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Urinary remedy Saw palmetto
has been nicknamed the “plant
catheter.” This is because it has the
ability to strengthen the neck of
the bladder, and to reduce an
enlarged prostate gland. It can be
equally useful in treating lower
urinary tract symptoms, such as pain,
frequency, and urgency in urination.

Saw palmetto

A small palm
growing to 20 ft
(6 m), with fans of
yellow-green leaves
and ivory flowers.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Tincture (to make, p. 292)
can be taken as a long-term
tonic for debility. Take I tsp
with water daily.

Remedy Make an infusion
(see p. 291) with 2 tsp saw
palmetto, 2 tsp horsetail, I tsp licorice,
and 3 A cup (200 ml) water. Take 'A cup

l I On rr\N ac aa +\a/i/~q -a rlaa\/

Berries have
a vanilla,
nutty flavor

Fresh berries

O Cautions Do not use during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, if taking
hormonal drugs, or if you have a hormone-dependent cancer.

EJ Parts Used

Berries have powerful diuretic
and tonic properties. They
are a traditional North
American remedy for
a wide range of problems.

Saw palmetto

Licorice

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I) is a
diuretic. For enlarged prostate,
take % cup (150 ml) daily.

It is a useful remedy in cystitis and
prostatitis (inflammation of the
prostate gland).

■ Anabolic action Saw palmetto
is a tonic and is one of the few
Western remedies that is considered
to be anabolic—it strengthens and
builds body tissues and encourages

weight gain. Fruit pulp or tincture is
given to those suffering from wasting
illnesses and for general debility and
failure to thrive.

Self-help Use

■ Impotence & premature
ejaculation, p. 3 16.

S / LY 6 U M M A R I A N U M

Silybum marianum syn. Carduus marianus (Asteraceae)

Milk Thistle , Mary thistle

Milk thistle

A spiny biennial,
growing to 5 ft
(1.5 m), with white-
veined leaves and
purple flower heads.

Milk thistle has been used in Europe as a remedy for
depression and liver problems for hundreds, if not
thousands, of years. Recent research has confirmed
traditional herbal knowledge, proving that the herb has
a remarkable ability to protect the liver from damage
resulting from alcoholic and other types of poisoning.
Today, milk thistle is widely used in the West for the
treatment of a range of liver conditions.

Milk thistle has distinctive white markings
on its leaves caused, according to tradition,
by the Virgin Mary’s milk.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to the Mediterranean, milk
thistle grows throughout Europe and is
naturalized in California. It grows wild,
thriving in open areas, and is cultivated
as an ornamental plant. Milk thistle likes
a sunny position and self-seeds readily.
The flower heads are picked in full
bloom in early summer and the seeds
are collected in late summer

Related Species

Other closely related herbs, including
holy thistle (Cnicus benedictus,
p. 191) and globe artichoke (Cynara
scolymus, p. 199), protect the liver
from toxicity and exert a positive
restorative action on liver function.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonlignans (1-4%)

(known collectively as “silymarin”)

■ Bitter principles

■ Polyacetylenes

Key Actions

■ Liver protective

■ Chemoprotective

■ Anticancer

■ Anti-allergenic

■ Increases breast-milk production

Research

■ Silymarin German research from
the 1970s onward has focused on
silymarin, a substance contained

in the seeds. This exerts a highly
protective effect on the liver,
maintaining its function and preventing
damage from compounds that are
normally highly toxic. It has been
shown that severe liver breakdown,
resulting from ingesting carbon
tetrachloride or death cap mushrooms,
can be prevented if silymarin is
taken immediately before, or within
48 hours. In Germany, silymarin has
been used successfully to treat
hepatitis and liver cirrhosis.

■ Other research In several clinical
trials, silymarin extracts protected
liver function in people taking
chemotherapy for cancer, including,
in one trial, children suffering from
leukemia. Research so far suggests
that silymarin extracts support
healthy liver function during
chemotherapy and do not reduce
the effectiveness of chemotherapy
drugs. Laboratory research indicates
that silymarin, particularly silybin,
has significant anticancer properties.
In a 201 I clinical trial in Iran, patients
with allergic rhinitis experienced
significantly fewer symptoms when
taking a silymarin extract.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional uses Milk thistle
flower heads, boiled and eaten like
artichokes, were useful as a spring

E3 Parts Used

Flower heads are eaten as a tonic
food and can be used in remedies.

Fresh flower
head

Dried flower
head

Spiny, thistle¬
like leaves are
gray-green

Seeds contain silymarin,
which protects the liver.
They are the main part
used in remedies.

Seeds

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions May cause allergic reactions in rare cases. Seek
guidance from your health care practitioner if planning to
take alongside chemotherapy.

Decoction of seeds (to
make, p. 291). For liver
infections, take
^ cup (75 ml) a day.

Tincture of seeds may be
taken to help hay fever.

Capsules of seeds (to make, p. 292).
For a hangover, take a 500 mg capsule.

Tablets are prescribed for long-term treatment of liver disorders.

tonic after the winter months when
people had been deprived of fresh
vegetables. They were also taken to
increase breast-milk production, and
were considered excellent for
melancholia (depression), which was
traditionally associated with the liver.
Gerard states in his Herball of 1597,
“My opinion is that this [milk thistle]
is the best remedy that grows against
all melancholy diseases.”

■ Liver disorders Today, milk
thistle is the main remedy used
in Western herbal medicine to
protect the liver and its many
metabolic activities, and help
renew its cells. The herb is used
in the treatment of hepatitis and
jaundice, as well as in conditions
where the liver is under stress—
whether from infection or excess
alcohol, or from chemotherapy.

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C KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

SYMPHYTUM OFFICINALE

138

Symphytum ofpcinale (Boraginaceae)

Comfrey, Knitbone

Comfrey’s names testify to its traditional use in mending
broken bones. “Comfrey” is a corruption of con firma,
meaning the bone is “made firm,” Symphytum is derived
from the Greek for “to unite,” and knitbone speaks for
itself. Comfrey is also a wound herb. K’Eogh in his Irish
Herbal (1735) wrote that it “heals all inward wounds
and ruptures.” Today, it is still highly regarded for its
healing properties.

Comfrey was known to the Greek physician
Dioscorides in the I st century ce, who wrote
about it in his Materia Medica.

Habitat & Cultivation

An indigenous European plant,
comfrey grows in all temperate
regions of the world, including
western Asia, North America, and
Australia. It thrives in moist, marshy
places. It can be grown from seed in
spring or by root division in autumn,
and the leaves and flowering tops
are harvested in summer. The root
is unearthed in autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Allantoin (up to 4.7%)

■ Mucilage (about 29%)

■ Triterpenoids

■ Phenolic acids
(rosmarinic acid)

■ Asparagine

■ Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
(0.02-0.07%)

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Demulcent

■ Astringent

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Heals wounds and bones

Research

■ Active constituents Allantoin
is a cell-proliferant that stimulates
the repair of damaged tissue. The
herb’s anti-inflammatory activity

is partly due to the presence of
rosmarinic acid and phenolic acids.

■ Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Research shows that, as isolated
substances, certain pyrrolizidine
alkaloids can be highly toxic to the
liver. It is still unclear whether they
are toxic in the context of the
whole plant, as they are only present
in minute amounts, often being
completely absent from samples

of dried aerial parts. The highest
concentration is in the root, which
should not be used internally. Skin
applications, as well as the aerial parts
of the plant, are considered safe.

■ Clinical research In Germany
and elsewhere in Europe, comfrey
is widely used for sprains, bruises,
and sports injuries. Research, mostly
in Germany, endorses the traditional
knowledge of comfrey’s wound¬
healing ability. In a 2007 study,
physicians rated the efficacy of a
comfrey leaf cream in healing
abrasions. The doctors rated its
effectiveness as good or very good
in 93% of cases, and complete healing
took 4 days with comfrey and 7 days
with placebo. Other studies indicate
comfrey’s value in promoting tissue
repair and as an anti-inflammatory

in conditions such as sprained ankle,
osteoarthritis, and lower back pain.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Injuries Comfrey’s ability to
promote the healing of bruises,

Comfrey

A perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m), with
thick leaves and bell¬
like white to pink
or mauve flowers.

E Key Preparations & Their Uses

Fresh

aerial parts

Aerial parts are rich
in anti-inflammatory and
astringent substances.

Dried
aerial parts

Dried root

O Cautions Do not use on dirty wounds as rapid healing can trap dirt or pus.
Take internally only under professional supervision. Restricted in some countries.
Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

root

Infused oil of leaves
(to make, p. 294).
Apply to sprains.

Ointment of leaves
(to make, p. 295).
Apply to bruises.

Tincture of root (to make, p. 292). Apply undiluted to acne.

ES Parts Used

Root is harvested in autumn when
the allantoin levels are highest

Chopping leaves

For boils, apply as a
poultice (see p. 295).

sprains, fractures, and broken bones
has been known for thousands of
years. It encourages ligaments and
bones to knit together firmly. A
comfrey compress applied immediately
to a sprained ankle can significantly
reduce the severity of the injury. The
combination of tannins and mucilage
helps to soothe bruises and grazes.

■ Other uses Comfrey preparations
have many other uses and can be

applied to heal problems such as
insect bites, scars, skin inflammation,
acne, and mastitis.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Fractures, p. 3 12.

■ Fungal skin infections, p. 304.

■ Healing wounds, p. 304.

■ Inflamed skin rashes, p. 303.

■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 3 13.

TABEBUIA SPP.

Tobebuia spp. (Bignoniaceae)

Pau d’Arco (Portuguese), Lapacho (Spanish)

Pau d’arco

An evergreen tree
(deciduous in cold
climates) reaching
100 ft (30 m), with
pink flowers.

Bark from the pau d’arco tree has been valued
for centuries in traditional South American herbal
medicine for its remarkable health benefits. Today,
it is given as a remedy for inflammatory and infectious
problems, including conditions such as chronic fatigue
and candidiasis. It is also used for other conditions and
has a mixed reputation as a treatment for cancer,
including leukemia.

Pau d’arco is valued for its durable wood
and for its bark that has important
therapeutic properties.

Habitat & Cultivation

An indigenous South American tree,
pau d’arco grows well in mountainous
terrains. In Peru and Argentina it is
found growing high up in the Andes.
Pau d’arco is also found in low-lying
areas (in Paraguay and Brazil), where
it is thought to have originated. Many
Tabebuia species are used in herbal

medicine, so quality control of dried
bark can be difficult. T. avellanedae
is considered to be the most
therapeutically effective species,
while I impetignosa is the species
that is most commonly available.

Pau d’arco is not normally
cultivated—-the prized inner bark is
collected from trees growing in the
wild, throughout the year.

Key Constituents

■ Napthaquinones (lapachol)

■ Anthraquinones

■ Coumarins

■ Flavonoids

■ Iridoids

■ Carnosol

Key Actions

■ Antibacterial

■ Antifungal

■ Antiparasitic

■ Immunostimulant

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Tonic

■ Antitumor

Research

■ Antibacterial and antifungal
activity A Colombian review (2013)
of research data on Tabebuia species,
much of which was undertaken

in South America, highlighted pau
d’arco’s strong, direct activity against
several key bacteria, notably
Staphylococcus aureus and
Helicobacter pylori, the latter being
the principal cause of stomach ulcers.
It also has broad-ranging activity
against many fungal agents, including
Candida albicans.

■ Antitumor properties Pau
d’arco’s anticancer action has been
established in laboratory
experiments, with many of its
constituents suppressing the growth
of cancer cells. Research in Brazil in
the 1960s raised great hopes that
pau d’arco might prove to be a major
cancer treatment, but clinical
research has failed to produce
positive results.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Early cure-all The Incas, the
Callawaya in Brazil, and other Native
South American peoples all prized
pau d’arco as a cure-all. They used

it to treat a variety of conditions,

including wounds, fever, dysentery,
and intestinal inflammation, as well as
certain types of cancer and snake bite.

■ Infections Given the large
number of active constituents in
pau d’arco, it is not surprising that
this beneficial herb is used in South
America and by herbal practitioners
throughout the world. It is an
important, natural antibiotic for
bacterial and viral infections,
especially of the nose, mouth, and
throat, and is considered helpful for
chronic conditions such as CFS
(chronic fatigue syndrome).

Pau d’arco is also used for fungal
conditions, including ringworm and
thrush, and is considered especially
useful for treating chronic candidiasis.

■ Anti-inflammatory action
Pau d’arco reduces and relieves
inflammatory problems, especially
in the stomach and intestines. It

is used to treat a wide range of
other inflammatory conditions,
including cystitis, inflammation of
the cervix, and prostatitis.

■ Cancer remedy Clinical
experience in Brazil, combined
with its worldwide use by herbalists
as a cancer remedy, suggests that
pau d’arco may be beneficial in

the treatment of cancer, including
leukemia. However, more intensive
research is needed into its
therapeutic value.

ES Parts Used

0

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Inner bark is prized for its immunostimulant properties.
It is used to treat many inflammatory conditions.

O Caution If taking anticoagulant medication, take pau d’arco only on professional
advice. Do not take during pregnancy. Avoid if trying to conceive.

Bark has important

Dried inner bark

Decoction (to make,
p. 29 I) is a traditional
preparation in South
America. For candidiasis,
drink % cup (150 ml)

3 times a day.

Ointment (to make, p. 295).
For wounds, apply freely.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is
suitable for long-term use.
For cfs, take 40 drops with
water 3 times a day.

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

TANACETUM PARTHENIUM

Tanacetum parthenium (Asteraceae)

Feverfew

Feverfew’s main traditional use was as a woman’s
herb. Nicholas Culpeper in The English Physitian
(1652) sings its praises as “a general strengthener of
[the] womb ... it cleanseth the womb, expelleth the
after-birth and doth the woman all the good she can
desire of an herb.” Feverfew is now used principally
as a treatment for migraine, but has also long been
thought of as an herb for arthritis and rheumatism.

Feverfew has daisylike flowers that bloom
all summer.

Habitat & Cultivation

Originally from southeastern
Europe, feverfew is now common
throughout Europe, Australia, and
North America. It can be propagated
from seed or cuttings, and prefers
well-drained soil and sun. The leaves
are picked as required and the aerial
parts as a whole are harvested in
summer when the plant is in flower.

Related Species

Feverfew is a close relative of
tansy (Tanacetum vulgore, p. 274),
and the chrysanthemum and
chamomile species.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (alpha-pinene)

■ Sesquiterpene lactones
(parthenolide)

■ Sesquiterpenes (camphor)

140

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Analgesic

■ Reduces fever

■ Antirheumatic

■ Promotes menstrual flow

Research

■ Migraine When, in 1973, the wife
of a Welsh doctor ended her 50-
year history of migraine with

a course of feverfew, a detailed
scientific investigation got underway.

In clinical trials in Britain during the
1980s the herb was shown to be an
effective remedy for migraine. Further
clinical trials across Europe, including
one in 2006 that combined feverfew
and willow bark (Salix alba, p. 129),
attest to feverfew’s ability to treat
migraine. The trials indicate feverfew
may need to be taken long term (for
6 months or more) for full effect.

■ Rheumatoid arthritis
Feverfew’s effectiveness in the
treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
is being investigated.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Fevers As its name implies,
feverfew may be used to lower
temperature and cool the body.

■ Gynecological uses The herb
has been used since Roman times
to induce menstruation. It is also
given in childbirth to aid expulsion
of the placenta.

■ Migraine & headaches In small
quantities, feverfew is now used as a
preventative for migraine. It has to be
taken regularly, and at the first signs
of an attack. It is useful for migraine
associated with menstruation, and
for headaches.

■ Arthritis remedy The herb
can help arthritic and rheumatic
pain, especially with other herbs.

Self-help Use

■ Migraine prevention, p. 309.

Feverfew

An herbaceous
perennial growing
to 2 ft (60 cm), with
numerous daisylike
flower heads.

Parts Used

Aerial parts

are harvested in
summer when the
plant is in flower.

The leaves contain
parthenolide, which
helps prevent migraine

Fresh aerial parts

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Cautions Eating fresh leaves may cause mouth ulcers. Do not take feverfew
if taking warfarin or other blood-thinning drugs. Do not take during pregnancy.
Can cause allergic reactions in rare cases.

Fresh leaves To prevent
migraine, eat 2-3 leaves
daily on a piece of bread.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For
long-term prevention of migraine,
take 10 drops a day.

Capsules (to make, p. 292). For symptomatic relief of headaches
take a 100 mg capsule daily.

© Tablets often contain other herbs. Take for headaches.

TARAXACUM OFFICINALE

Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae)

Dandelion

Dandelion

A perennial growing
to 20 in (50 cm),
with ragged basal
leaves, hollow stalks,
and golden flowers.

Known principally as a weed, dandelion has an astonishing
range of health benefits. In Western folk medicine, the
leaves, which can be eaten in salads, have long been used
as a diuretic. They were recommended in the works
of Arab physicians in the I Ith century, and in an herbal
written by the physicians of Myddfai in Wales in the
13th century. The root, which has a shorter history
of medicinal use, is good for the liver.

Dandelion’s name, which is a corruption of
the Latin dens leonis, meaning“lion’s teeth,”
derives from the appearance of its flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation

Dandelion grows wild in most parts
of the world and is cultivated in
Germany and France. It is propagated
from seed in spring. The young leaves
are picked in spring for tonic salads,
and later as a medicine. The root
of 2-year-old plants is unearthed
in autumn.

Related Species

Pu gong ying (T mongolicum ) is used
in Chinese herbal medicine to “clear
heat” and relieve toxicity, especially
of the liver.

Key Constituents

■ Sesquiterpene lactones

■ Triterpenes

■ Polysaccharides

Leaf only:

■ Coumarins

■ Carotenoids

■ Minerals (especially potassium)
Root only:

■ Taraxacoside

■ Phenolic acids

■ Minerals (potassium, calcium)

Key Actions

■ Diuretic

■ Detoxifying

■ Bitter

Research

■ Leaves Research published in
the journal Planta Medico, in 1974,
confirmed that dandelion leaves
are a powerful diuretic, though
their exact mode of action is not
understood. Many other small-scale
studies have confirmed this diuretic,
or more accurately, aquaretic effect
of dandelion leaf. Aquaretic refers
to the fact that many herbal diuretics
stimulate just the elimination of
water and potassium. As dandelion
leaf has very high levels of potassium,
it is thought that no net loss of this
mineral occurs on taking the leaf.

■ Root A 2004 laboratory study
reported dandelion root had marked
anticancer activity. It significantly
increased tumor necrosis factor and
apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Diuretic Dandelion leaf is used
as a diuretic and treats high blood
pressure by reducing the volume
of fluid in the body.

■ Detoxifying remedy Dandelion
root is a key detoxifying herb that
gently stimulates the liver and gall
bladder’s capacity to clear waste
products from the body. This action
makes it valuable in the many health
conditions that involve chronic toxicity,
whether this toxicity is linked to
inflammation, infection, or dietary or
environmental factors. The root is
typically taken to treat constipation,

E3 Parts Used

Fresh leaves

Fresh root

Leaves contain
high levels of
potassium

Leaves are juiced, eaten raw in salads,
or dried for use in herbal preparations.

Dried leaves

Root is harvested after
2 years and is dried or roasted.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Marigold petals

Tonic salad made with dandelion leaves.
Eat regularly for its cleansing benefits.

Tablets have a diuretic effect.
Take for fluid retention.

Tincture of root (to make, p. 292).
For eczema, take !4tsp diluted with
Vi cup (100 ml) water 3 times a day.

Decoction of root (p. 291). For acne, take cup (75 ml) 3 times a day.
Infusion of leaves (p. 291). For swollen ankles, take 2 cups (500 ml) daily.
Juice made from leaves. For fluid retention, take I tbsp 3 times a day.

skin problems, such as eczema, and
arthritic conditions, where improved
clearance of waste products can
reduce local inflammation.

■ Other uses Dandelion root is a
good prebiotic, supporting the health
of the gut flora. It has traditionally
been used in the early stages of type 2
diabetes, stimulating insulin release

from the pancreas and supporting
stable blood-sugar levels.

Self-help Uses

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Constipation, p. 307.

■ Detoxification for hangover, p. 309.

■ Fluid retention, p. 3 15.

■ Hives, p. 303.

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KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

142

TERMINALIA A RJ U N A

Terminalia arjuna (Combretaceae)

Arjun

Arjun

An evergreen tree
reaching 100 ft (30 m),
with pale yellow
flowers and cone-
shaped leaves.

The bark of the arjun tree has been used in Indian
herbal medicine for at least 3,000 years, and has
always been valued as a remedy for the heart. The
first person credited with prescribing arjun for heart
disease was Vagbhata, an Indian physician of the
7th century ce. Arjun is an example of an herb for
which the traditional use has been confirmed by
modern pharmacological research.

Arjun is a handsome evergreen tree. Its
bark is prescribed to help heart and
circulation problems.

Habitat & Cultivation

Arjun is found throughout most
of the Indian subcontinent, from
Sri Lanka to the foothills of the
Himalayas. It thrives in wet, marshy
areas and on riverbanks. The tree is
grown from seed and the bark
is cut in late winter.

Related Species

A number of other Terminalia species
are also used medicinally, notably
beleric myrobalan and chebulic
myrobalan (T belerica and T. chebula,
p. 275). Both are close relatives of
arjun and are among the most used
herbal medicines in India.

Key Constituents

■ Tannins

■ Triterpenoid saponins

■ Flavonoids

■ Phytosterols

Key Actions

■ Cardiac tonic

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Reduces cholesterol levels

Research

■ Cardiac tonic Research has
been going on into arjun in India
since the 1930s. The results have
been highly conflicting, with some
studies indicating that it increases
heart rate and blood pressure, and
others suggesting the reverse. It
seems that the herb is best used
to treat conditions where the blood
supply to the heart is poor, for
example in ischemic heart disease
and angina. In a 2002 clinical trial

in India, 58 men with angina were
given arjun. Results were very
positive, with those taking arjun
experiencing a marked reduction
in angina symptoms and an increased
capacity to exercise.

■ Cholesterol Indian research has
demonstrated that arjun reduces
blood cholesterol levels.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional heart remedy

In Indian herbal medicine, arjun has
always been taken as a heart tonic.

It has a long history of treating heart
failure and edema (a condition in
which fluid accumulates in the ankles
and legs because the heart is not
pumping adequately).

■ Ayurvedic medicine Ayurvedic
physicians use arjun to restore balance
when any of the 3 humors, kapha,
pitta , or vata (see p. 37), is present in
excess. As a decoction, the bark is
given to treat diarrhea and dysentery.
Powdered bark is part of a traditional
Ayurvedic treatment for asthma. Arjun
is also given in Ayurveda for bile duct
problems, as well as for poisoning and
scorpion stings.

S3 Parts Used

Bark has constituents that
lower blood pressure and
reduce cholesterol levels.

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

Dried

bark

Bark is used to treat
heart disease in India

O Caution Take only under professional supervision.

Decoction is used by herbalists to Tincture is a valuable cardiac tonic,

treat poor circulation to the heart. Herbalists prescribe it to treat angina.

Powder is a traditional
Ayurvedic remedy,
prescribed for asthma.

■ Modern heart remedy Arjun is
beneficial for angina and poor coronary
circulation. It is also of benefit if the
hearts rate and rhythm are abnormal.
By lowering blood cholesterol levels,

reducing blood pressure, and
supporting normal heart function,
arjun improves the health of the
circulation and reduces the risk of
developing a serious heart problem.

THYMUS VULGARIS

Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae)

Thyme, Garden Thyme

Thyme was praised by the herbalist Nicholas Culpeper
(1616-1654) as “a notable strengthener of the lungs,
as notable a one as grows; neither is there a better
remedy growing for that disease in children which they
commonly call chin-cough [whooping cough],” Thyme is
an excellent antiseptic and tonic, and today it is still used
as a respiratory remedy, as well as being important for a
variety of other ailments.

Thyme's pink flowers attract bees in
profusion and give a distinctive flavor
to the honey.

Habitat & Cultivation

Thyme is a cultivated variety of the
wild thyme ( T. serpyllum, p. 276) of
southern Europe and is now grown
worldwide. It is raised from seed or
by root division in spring and prefers
light, chalky soils. The aerial parts are
harvested in summer.

Related Species

There are many Thymus species, each
with a different volatile oil content.
Wild thyme ( T. serpyllum, p. 276) is
often used in the same way as thyme.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (mostly thymol
and carvacrol)

■ Flavonoids

■ Phenolic acids

Key Actions

■ Antiseptic

■ Tonic

■ Relieves muscle spasms

■ Expectorant

■ Expels worms

■ Antioxidant

Research

■ Volatile oil Thyme’s volatile oil is
strongly antiseptic—-the constituent
thymol, in particular, is a most
effective antifungal. The oil is also
expectorant and it expels worms.

■ Anti-aging Research in the 1990s
in Scotland suggests that thyme and its
volatile oil have a markedly tonic
effect, supporting the body’s normal
function and countering the effects
of aging. More recent research
indicates that thyme is strongly
antioxidant and may help maintain
higher levels of essential fatty acids
within the brain.

■ Stomach ulcers Extracts of
the herb have shown strong
antibacterial activity against H. pylori,
a bacterium often associated with
stomach ulcers.

■ Menstrual pain Many compounds
within thyme relieve muscle cramps.

A 2014 Iranian clinical trial compared
the ability of thyme and ibuprofen

to relieve period pains. The findings
showed both treatments to
be effective.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Infections The antiseptic and
tonic properties of thyme make it a
useful tonic for the immune system in
chronic, especially fungal, infections, as
well as an effective remedy for throat
and chest infections.

■ Asthma & hay fever Thyme
is prescribed with other herbs for
asthma, especially in children. Its
invigorating qualities balance the
sedative effect of many herbs used
for asthma. Thyme is also helpful

in hay fever.

Thyme

An aromatic shrub
growing to 16 in
(40 cm), with woody
stems, small leaves,
and pink flowers.

E9 Parts Used

Aerial parts, harvested in summer,
contain antiseptic volatile oil.

Fresh leaves

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take the essential oil internally.

Do not use the essential oil externally during pregnancy.

Essential oil for acne,
dilute to 5% and dab
onto inflamed spots.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I).
For colds, take Vi cup
(100 ml) 3 times daily.

Syrup (to make,
p. 293) is a traditional
cough remedy. Take
I tbsp 3 times a day.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For thrush, apply 40 drops, 2-3 times daily.

■ Worms Thyme is often used to
treat worms in children.

■ External uses Applied to the
skin, thyme relieves bites and stings,
and is used for sciatica and rheumatic
pains. It helps ringworm, athlete’s foot,
thrush, and other fungal infections,

as well as scabies and lice. Thyme
infusion and diluted oil are also
massaged into the scalp to encourage
hair growth and reverse hair loss.

Self-help Uses

■ Allergic rhinitis, p. 300.

■ Back pain, p. 3 13.

■ Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Colds & flu, p. 3 I I .

■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 3 10.

■ Earache, p. 3 12.

■ Fungal infections, pp. 304 & 3 14.

■ Maintaining vitality, p. 3 19.

■ Mild asthma, p. 301.

■ Tired & aching muscles, p. 3 12.

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144

TURNERA DIFFUSA

Turnera diffusa syn. 7 diffusa var. aphrodisiaca (Passifloraceae)

Damiana

Damiana

An aromatic shrub
growing to 6/4 ft (2 m),
with smooth, pale
green leaves and small,
single yellow flowers.

Damiana is a traditional aphrodisiac of the Maya
people in Central America. It continues to be
considered valuable as an aphrodisiac and general
tonic, and its stimulant, tonic action also makes it
a valuable remedy for those suffering from mild
depression. Damiana has a strongly aromatic, slightly
bitter taste. The leaves are used to flavor liqueurs and
are taken in Mexico as a substitute for tea.

Damiana is an excellent tonic herb for
physical weakness and nervous exhaustion.

Habitat & Cultivation

Damiana is native to the Gulf of
Mexico, southern California, the
northern Caribbean Islands, and
Namibia. It is also cultivated in these
areas. Damiana is grown from seed
in spring and prefers a hot, humid
climate. The leaves are harvested
when the herb is in flower
in summer.

Related Species

T. opifera and T ulmifolia are used
as tonics in Brazil and Central
America, respectively.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (about 0.5-1 %),
including caryophylene,
thymol, and cadinene

■ Flavonoids

■ Hydroquinones (arbutin)

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Tonic

■ Nerve tonic

■ Aphrodisiac

■ Mild stimulant

■ Mild antidepressant

■ Mild laxative and diuretic

Research

■ Initial research The first
study into the aphrodisiac activity
of damiana (published in 1999)
found that male rats with low
sexual activity became more
sexually active when given damiana
extract. One cannot generalize
from animals to humans, but this
does correspond with traditional
views of the herb. Other recent
research suggests that damiana
helps to prevent raised blood-
sugar levels in diabetics.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Tonic Damiana is atonic and
restorative for the nervous system,
and has always been considered an
aphrodisiac. Its tonic action is partly
due to the constituent thymol, which
is antiseptic and tonic.

■ Antidepressant Technically,
damiana is athymoleptic (having a
stimulating action on the body and
mind). It is given to people suffering
from mild to moderate depression
or nervous exhaustion. Its stimulating
and restorative properties make it
valuable when anxiety and depression
happen together.

■ Sexual restorative Due to its

reputed testosterogenic activity,
damiana has always been seen as
an herb for men, helpful in treating
premature ejaculation and
impotence. It is, however, beneficial
for both men and women, being
considered restorative to the
reproductive organs of both sexes.

0 Parts Used

Leaves are harvested
in summer. They make a
pleasant-tasting tea and
are used for a wide range
of medicinal preparations.

Fresh leaves

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a
nerve tonic and antidepressant.

For mild depression, take 30
drops with water 4 times a day.

Infusion (to make, p. 291) is a
tonic and is useful for urinary
infections. Drink 34 cup (150 ml)
daily as a general tonic.

Tablets usually also
contain other herbs.
Take as a relaxing tonic.

Dried leaves

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

■ Gynecological problems

Damiana is often given for painful
and delayed periods, and is used
specifically for headaches connected
to menstruation.

■ Urinary antiseptic Being a
diuretic and urinary antiseptic, damiana
is useful in the treatment of urinary
infections such as cystitis and urethritis.
This action is partly due to the
constituent arbutin, which is converted
into hydroquinone, a strong urinary

antiseptic, in the urinary tubules. This
constituent is also found in a number
of other plants, notably uva-ursi
(Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, p. 170).

■ Laxative Damiana is a mild
laxative, useful in the treatment of
constipation due to poor bowel
muscle tone.

Self-help Use

■ Anxiety, depression, &
tension, p. 308.

ULMUS RUBRA

Ulmus rubra (Ulmaceae)

Slippery Elm

Slippery elm

A large tree growing
to 59 ft (18 m) with
a brown trunk and
rough gray-white bark
on the branches.

This marvellous herb is a gentle and effective remedy
for irritated states of the mucous membranes of
the chest, urinary tubules, stomach, and intestines.

It was used in many different ways by Native
Americans—as a poultice for wounds, boils, ulcers,
and inflamed eyes, and internally for fevers, colds, and
bowel complaints. Slippery elm has a strongly
mucilaginous “slippery” taste and texture.

Slippery elm produces red-brown fruit,
each consisting of a single seed,
in summer.

Habitat & Cultivation

Slippery elm is a native of the U.S.
and Canada, and is most commonly
found growing in the Appalachian
Mountains. The tree thrives on high
ground and dry soil. The inner bark
of the trunk and branches is collected
in spring.

Related Species

White elm (U. americana ) is used in
a similar way to slippery elm, and was
taken for coughs by the Mohicans. In
Europe, the dried bark of elm (Ulmus
spp.) was used as a demulcent, and
was first mentioned by Dioscorides
in the I st century ce.

Key Constituents

■ Mucilage

■ Starch

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Demulcent

■ Emollient

■ Nutritive

■ Laxative

Research

■ Mucilage There is limited
research into slippery elm, but its
action as an herb with large quantities
of mucilage is well understood. When
the herb comes into direct contact
with inflamed surfaces such as the
skin or the intestinal membranes,

it soothes and coats the irritated
tissue, protects it from injury, and
draws out toxins or irritants.

■ Reflex action When slippery
elm is taken internally, it is thought
likely that it causes a reflex
stimulation of nerve endings in
the stomach and intestines that
leads to secretion of mucus by the
membranes of the urinary tract.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Nourishing Taken regularly,
slippery elm is a nutritious and
soothing food that acts as a prebiotic,
supporting beneficial bacterial growth
within the gut. It is excellent as a baby
food and during convalescence.

■ Digestive disorders Slippery elm
is a particularly soothing herb and can
bring instant relief to acidity, diarrhea,
and gastroenteritis. It will also help
alleviate conditions such as colic,
inflammation of the gut, constipation,
hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, and
irritable bowel syndrome.

■ Urinary problems This herb
is a useful remedy for urinary
problems such as chronic cystitis.

■ Respiratory conditions
Slippery elm has been used to treat
all manner of chest conditions and
has a soothing effect on everything
from coughs and bronchitis to pleurisy
and tuberculosis.

E9 Parts Used

Inner bark of 10-year-old
slippery elm trees is collected
in spring and powdered.

Bark contains mucilage that
soothes irritated tissues

Dried bark

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

Fresh bark

Infusion Mix I heaped tsp with
3 cups (750 ml) of warm water.
Infuse for 5 minutes. For
diarrhea, drink a whole dose
I -2 times a day.

Capsules (to make, p. 292)
For bronchitis, take a 200 mg
capsule 2-3 times a day.

Poultice For wounds, add several
drops of calendula tincture to
I tsp of powder. Mix into a paste
and apply (see p. 295).

Powder For acid indigestion, take I tsp with water 2-3 times daily.
© Tablets Take for diarrhea.

■ External uses Applied externally,
the herb softens and protects the
skin. It also works very well as a
“drawing” poultice for boils
and splinters.

Self-help Uses

■ Acidity & indigestion, p. 307.

■ Acne & boils, p. 305.

■ Constipation in children, p. 3 18.

■ Hemorrhoids, p. 302.

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URTICA DI 0 ICA

146

Urtico dioica (Urticaceae)

Nettle

Known for its sting, nettle has long been appreciated
for its medicinal uses. In the I st century ce, the Greek
physician Dioscorides listed a range of uses—the fresh
chopped leaves as a plaster for septic wounds, the juice
for nosebleeds, and the cooked leaves mixed with myrrh
to stimulate menstruation. Today, nettle is used for hay
fever, arthritis, anemia, and, surprisingly, even for
some skin conditions.

Nettle can be cooked as a vegetable and
tastes like spinach.

Habitat & Cultivation

Nettle grows in temperate regions
worldwide. The shoots are picked
in spring for use as a tonic and a
vegetable. Aerial parts are picked in
summer when the plant is in flower.
The root is harvested in autumn.

Related Species

The annual nettle (U. urens) is used in
similar ways to U. dioica. Roman nettle
(U. pilulifera ) was the species most
used by the Romans for “urtication”
(beating with nettles to encourage
blood to the surface), which they
did to keep themselves warm.

Key Constituents

Aerial parts:

■ Flavonoids (quercitin)

■ Amines (histamine, choline,
acetylcholine, serotonin)

■ Glucoquinone

■ Minerals (calcium, potassium,
silicic acid, iron)

Root:

■ Plant sterols (stigmast-4-en-zone
and stigmasterol)

■ Phenols

Key Actions

■ Diuretic

■ Tonic

■ Astringent

■ Prevents hemorrhaging

■ Anti-allergenic

■ Reduces prostate
enlargement (root)

■ Anti-inflammatory

Research

■ Root Clinical trials over the past

20 years have supported the root’s use
in treating an enlarged prostate and
easing lower urinary tract symptoms,
though several tested it in combination
with saw palmetto (Serenoa repens,
p. 136) ratherthan on its own.

■ Antiarthritic Studies into nettle’s
benefit in osteoarthritis have had
mixed results, though a 2009 French
trial found it reduced patients’
required daily intake of anti¬
inflammatories when combined
with Vitamin E, zinc, and fish oil.

■ Seeds Results of a 2009 Iranian
laboratory study suggested that the
seeds are antioxidant and protect
liver function.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Cleansing Nettle’s key traditional
use is as a cleansing, detoxifying herb.
It has a diuretic action, possibly due
to its flavonoids and high potassium
content, and increases urine
production and the elimination of
waste products. It helps many skin
conditions and arthritic problems.

■ Astringent Nettle slows or
stops bleeding from wounds and
nosebleeds, and is good for heavy
menstrual bleeding.

Nettle

A perennial growing
to 5 ft (1.5 m), with
lance-shaped leaves
and green flowers
with yellow stamens.

Seeds are thought to
act to protect the liver.

Decoction of root (see Ointment of leaves Soup with nettle leaves,

p. 29 I). For enlarged prostate, (to make, p. 295). For carrots and onions is rich

drink 3 A cup (150 ml) daily. eczema, rub liberally. in iron. Drink regularly.

Capsules of leaf, (to make, p. 292). For enlarged prostate take a 300 mg capsule
2-4 times a day. For heavy periods, take a 100 mg capsule 3 times a day.

Infusion of leaves (to make, p. 291). Drink 3 A cup (200 ml) daily as a tonic.

Tincture of root (to make, p. 292) helps allergies and skin conditions.

For hay fever, take I tsp diluted with 'A cup (100 ml) water twice a day.

Dried aerial parts

Root has important diuretic
properties that make it useful
for prostate problems.

Dried root
Fresh root

Seeds

0 Parts Used

Aerial parts are eaten as atonic vegetable
and used to make medicinal preparations.

High levels of
nutrients are
concentrated
in the leaves

■ Allergies Nettle is antiallergenic.
It treats hay fever, asthma, itchy skin
conditions, and insect bites. The juice
can be used as a treatment for
nettle stings.

■ Enlarged prostate
Following research, nettle root has
now become a common treatment
for symptoms linked to having an
enlarged prostate.

Self-help Uses

■ Allergic rhinitis including
hay fever, p. 300.

■ Anemia due to heavy
menstrual bleeding, p. 30 1 .
Bites & stings, p. 303.

■ Mild asthma, p. 301.

■ Diaper rash, p. 3 18.

■ Hives, p. 303.

■ Nosebleeds, p. 3 10.

VACCINIUM M Y RT I L L U S

Vaccinium myrtillus (Ericaceae)
Bilberry, Blueberry

Bilberry

A deciduous shrub,
growing to 16 in
(40 cm) tall, with white
or pink flowers and
purple-black berries.

Bilberry fruit first came to attention in the World War II
(1939-45) when pilots found that their night vision
improved on eating bilberryjam. Since then research has
shown that bilberries help the eyes to adjust to the dark,
and stimulate the part of the retina most involved in
seeing clearly, especially in dim or dark conditions.
There is also the suggestion that bilberry fruit helps
to correct nearsightedness.

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Caution If taking anticoagulants or diagnosed with a bleeding disorder, take
medicinal doses on professional advice only.

Key Actions

■ Circulatory tonic

■ Antioxidant

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Astringent

■ Urinary antiseptic

Bilberry fruit can be used as a natural
antioxidant supplement.

Habitat & Cultivation

Bilberry thrives in moist undergrowth
on moors, hillsides, and heathland,
throughout temperate regions of
the northern hemisphere—Asia,
Europe, and North America. Widely
cultivated around the world, bilberry
is propagated from seed in autumn,
or from cuttings. The leaves are
collected in summer, the fruit
when ripe in late summer or
early autumn.

Research

■ Circulation Clinical trials from
1964 onward have shown that
bilberry fruits protect peripheral
circulation and capillaries. Symptoms
that have been shown to improve
with bilberry extracts include fluid
retention, pain, pins and needles
(paresthesia), and cramps—all
resulting from impaired peripheral
blood flow.

■ Eyesight Different trials have
also shown improvement to eyesight
in the nearsighted, in those with
retinal damage due to diabetes, and
to high blood pressure in patients
taking bilberry extracts, beta-
carotene, and retinol. Other
conditions such as period pain and
recovery from hemorrhoid
operations may improve with bilberry.

E3 Parts Used

Dried berries

Leaves make a useful urinary antiseptic
and astringent for urinary tract problems
such as cystitis and irritable bladder.

U

Fresh

berries

Fresh leaves

Berries have a strong healing
effect on capillaries, especially
on the micro-circulation within

the eye.

Capsules Take up to 4 x 500 mg

capsules a day to improve Tincture (to make, p. 292). Take

circulation within the eye. Vi tsp a day for poor circulation.

Related Species

Other members of the Ericaceae,
such as bearberry (Arctostaphyllos
uvo-ursi, p. 170), cowberry (V vitis-
idaea ), and cranberry ( V. mocrocarpon,
p. 280) are used principally as
urinary antiseptics.

Key Constituents

■ Tannins (approximately 7%)

■ Proanthocyanins

■ Flavonoids

■ Fruit acids

■ Phenolic acids

■ Pectin

■ Vitamin B 2 , C, and carotene

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Digestive problems Bilberry
fruit has long been used as a mild
laxative (because of its sugars),
and to relieve diarrhea (due to
the tannins). It is also moderately
antibacterial and, since it tastes
pleasant, is useful for treating
diarrhea and indigestion in children.

■ Circulatory disorders Many
circulatory disorders will benefit from
the fruit’s ability to improve capillary
function and heal inflammation.

These include intermittent

Decoction (to make, p. 291) is pleasant-tasting and useful for short-term
treatment of diarrhea in children.

© Tablets, like capsules, are convenient for long-term use.

claudication, Raynaud’s disease,
varicose veins, hemorrhoids, easy
bruising, and all conditions impairing
blood flow to the eyes, particularly
diabetes and high blood pressure.

■ Antioxidant The fruit is used to
protect against tissue damage (it may
prevent cataract formation) and to
promote tissue healing, for example
in the gastrointestinal tract or in
rheumatoid or osteoarthritis.

■ Antiseptic The leaves have a
marked antiseptic effect within the
bladder and urinary tubules, and can
be used to treat urinary infections
such as cystitis.

■ Antidiabetic The leaves and
fruit have antidiabetic activity,
helping especially in pre-diabetic
states. There is growing evidence
that the fruit can help to promote
weight loss.

147

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148

VALERIANA OFFICINALIS

Valeriana officinalis (Valerianaceae)

Valerian

Valerian

Erect perennial
growing to 4 ft
(1.2 m), with pinnate
divided leaves and
pink flowers.

Valerian has been used as a sedative and relaxant at
least since Roman times. It was known to Dioscorides
in the I st century ce, who named it phu, the sound of
the word reflecting its unpleasant smell. Valerian helps
relieve stress and has become an increasingly popular
remedy in recent decades. It is a safe, nonaddictive
relaxant that reduces nervous tension and anxiety and
promotes restful sleep.

Valerian helps reduce stress. Its name is
thought to be derived from the Latin valere,
"to be well."

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Europe and northern
Asia, valerian grows wild in
damp conditions. It is cultivated
in central and eastern Europe.

The plant is grown from seed in
spring, and the root and rhizome
of 2-year-old plants are unearthed
in autumn.

Related Species

V. copensis is given in South Africa
for hysteria and epilepsy; V. hardwickii,
found in China and Indonesia, is taken
as an antispasmodic; V. ulginosa was
used for cramps and menopausal
symptoms by the Menominee people
in North America; and V. wallichi is
used in the Himalayas in almost
exactly the same way as valerian.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (up to 1.4%),
including bornyl acetate,
beta-caryphyllene

■ Iridoids (valepotriates)—
valtrate, isovaltrate

■ Alkaloids

Key Actions

■ Sedative

■ Relaxant

■ Relieves muscle spasms

■ Relieves anxiety

■ Lowers blood pressure

Research

■ Therapeutic properties

Extensive research in Germany and
Switzerland has endorsed the use of
valerian to aid sleep, improve sleep
quality, and lower blood pressure.

A German trial carried out in 2002
that tested valerian and oxazepam
(a conventional sleep treatment)
found both to be effective—83% of
those taking valerian rated the
treatment as very good compared to
73% of those taking oxazepam.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Historical uses Known as “all¬
heal” in the Middle Ages, valerian
was credited with many virtues, in
particular with healing epilepsy.

In 1592, Fabius Calumna published
a detailed work on herbal medicine
in which he claimed to have cured
his epilepsy with the herb.

■ Stress-related disorders
Valerian reduces mental over¬
activity and nervous excitability,
helping people who find it hard
to “switch off.” It is beneficial for
almost any stress-related condition,
and, in general, has a calming, rather
than directly sedative, effect on
the mind.

■ Anxiety & insomnia Many
symptoms of anxiety, including
tremors, panic, palpitations, and
sweating, can be relieved with

E3 Parts Used

Root and rhizome are harvested in autumn when
they contain the highest level of active ingredients.

Fresh root
and rhizome

Dried root
and rhizome

Valepotriates in
the rhizome and
root induce sleep

E Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Can cause drowsiness. Do not take valerian if already taking
sleep-inducing drugs.

Tablets often also contain other
herbs. Take for stress or anxiety.

Powder can be taken as
capsules (to make, p. 292).
For insomnia, take 1-2
doses of 500 mg at night.

Tincture (to make, p. 292).
For anxiety, take 20 drops in
hot water up to 5 times a day.

Decoction (to make, p. 29 I). Take I -5 tbsp as a sedative at night.

valerian. It is a useful remedy for
insomnia, whether caused by anxiety
or overexcitement.

■ Effective relaxant Valerian relaxes
overcontracted muscles, and is helpful
for shoulder and neck tension, asthma,
colic, irritable bowel syndrome, period
pain, and muscle spasms.

■ High blood pressure Valerian

is used with other herbs in remedies

for high blood pressure caused
by stress and anxiety.

Self-help Uses

■ Chronic anxiety, p. 308.

■ Insomnia, p. 309.

■ Nervous exhaustion, p. 309.

■ Premenstrual syndrome, p. 3 15.

■ Sleeplessness due to
backache, p. 3 13.

VERBENA OFFICINALIS

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

Vervain, Ma Bian Cao (Chinese)

Vervain has long been credited with magical properties
and was used in ceremonies by the Druids of ancient
Britain and Gaul. It is a traditional herbal medicine in both
China and Europe. Dioscorides in the 1st century ce
called vervain the “sacred herb,” and for many centuries
it was taken as a cure-all. It has tonic, restorative properties,
and is used to relieve stress and anxiety and to improve
digestive function.

Vervain was carried in the Middle Ages
to bring good luck.

Habitat & Cultivation

Vervain grows wild throughout
much of Europe and North Africa
as well as in China and Japan. It is
propagated from seed in spring or
autumn and thrives in well-drained
soil in a sunny position. The aerial
parts are harvested in summer
when the plant is in flower.

Related Species

Blue vervain ( V. hastata), which
is native to North America, is
used medicinally in the same
way as vervain.

Key Constituents

■ Bitter iridoids
(verbenin, verbenalin)

■ Volatile oil

■ Alkaloids

■ Triterpenes (beta-sitosterol)

■ Flavonoids

Key Actions

■ Nervine

■ Tonic

■ Mild bitter

■ Mild antidepressant

Research

■ Hormonal effects Early
indications from research into vervain
are that it has both estrogenic

and progestogenic activity. It also
stimulates the muscles of the womb,
and production of breast milk.

■ Lack of research For an herb
with such long traditional use,
surprisingly little research into vervain
has occurred to date. Laboratory
studies indicate that vervain has
significant anti-inflammatory activity.

It may also have antiviral and liver-
protective properties. Verbenalin, an
active compound within vervain, is
strongly bitter, may cause vomiting at
high doses, and stimulates contraction
of the womb.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Digestive tonic Vervain improves
the function of the digestive system
and absorption of food.

■ Nervous system Vervain is
prized as a restorative for the nervous
system and is especially helpful for
nervous tension. It is thought to have
a mild antidepressant action, and is
used specifically to treat anxiety and
the nervous exhaustion that follows
long-term stress.

■ Convalescence By aiding
digestion and restoringthe nervous
system, vervain is an ideal tonic for
people recovering from chronic illness.

■ Headaches & migraines
Vervain alleviates headaches, and in
Chinese herbal medicine it is used
for migraines connected with the
menstrual cycle.

■ Other uses Among its other
medicinal uses, vervain is given

Vervain

A slender perennial
growing to 3 ft (I m),
with stiff, thin stems
and spikes of small
lilac flowers.

E3 Parts Used

Aerial parts have atonic
effect on the nervous system
and digestion, and have been
used medicinally for thousands
of years in Europe and China.

Vervain has_
slender, almost
“wandlike,”
flowering stems

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not exceed the stated dose. Vervain can cause vomiting if taken
in excess. Do not take during pregnancy.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a relaxing,
calming tonic. For stress and anxiety,
take Vi tsp diluted in a glass of water
3 times a day.

Infusion (to make, p. 291) helps stimulate
digestion and improves effective
absorption of food. Drink % cup (150 ml)
regularly, particularly after heavy meals.

Powder can be used as a toothpaste.
Rub on the teeth regularly to clean
and protect them.

for jaundice, gallstones, asthma,
insomnia, premenstrual syndrome,
flu, and fevers.

Self-help Uses

■ Nervous exhaustion, p. 309.

■ Premenstrual syndrome, p. 3 15.

149

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

VIBURNUM 0 P U LU S

Viburnum opulus (Caprifoliaceae)

Cramp Bark, Guelder Rose

Native to both North America and Europe, cramp
bark was recognized as recently as 1960 in the US
National Formulary as a sedative remedy for nervous
conditions and as an antispasmodic in the treatment
of asthma. As its name implies, the herb's primary
medicinal use is to relieve cramps and other conditions,
such as colic or painful menstruation, caused by
overcontraction of muscles.

Cramp bark has distinctive bright red
berries in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation

Cramp bark grows in woodlands,
hedges, and thickets in Europe
and eastern North America. It
is propagated from seed sown
in autumn. Bark from the
branches is collected in spring
and summer, when the plant is
in flower.

Related Species

Black haw (V. prunifolium, p. 28 I)
is often used interchangeably
with cramp bark, but it is thought
to have a more specific action
on the uterus.

150

Key Constituents

■ Hydroquinones (arbutin)

■ Coumarins (scopoletin)

■ Tannins (3%)

■ Proanthocyanidins

■ Polysaccharides

Key Actions

■ Antispasmodic

■ Sedative

■ Astringent

■ Relaxant

Research

■ Active constituents To date,
cramp bark has been poorly
researched, and there is also some
confusion over which active
constituents it contains and which
occur in the closely related black
haw ( V. prunifolium').

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Native American remedy

Cramp bark has a history of use
in Native American herbalism.

The Meskwaki people took
cramp bark for cramps and pains
throughout the body, while the
Penobscot used it to treat swollen
glands and mumps.

■ Muscle relaxant Cramp bark
is effective at relieving any tense
muscle, whether smooth muscle in
the intestines, airways, or uterus,
or striated muscle (attached to
the skeleton) in the limbs or back.

It may be taken internally, or applied
topically to relieve muscle tension.
The herb also treats symptoms
arising from excess muscle tension,
including breathing difficulties in
asthma, and menstrual pain caused
by excessive contraction of the
uterus. For night cramps and back
pain, lobelia (Lobelia inflata, p. I 10)
is often mixed with cramp bark.

The herb also relieves constipation,
colic, and irritable bowel syndrome,
as well as the physical symptoms of
nervous tension.

■ Arthritis In some cases of
arthritis, where joint weakness
and pain have caused muscles to
contract until they are almost rigid,
cramp bark can bring remarkable

Cramp bark

A deciduous shrub
or tree growing to
13 ft (4 m), with lobed
leaves, white flowers,
and red oval fruit.

Key Preparations & Their Uses

ESI Parts Used

Bark is peeled off the tree
in strips during spring and
summer. Care must be taken
to leave enough bark for the
tree to stay alive.

Dried bark

Fresh bark

Decoction (to make, p. 291).
For period pain, take 14 cup
(75 ml) every 3 hours.

Tincture (to make, p. 292) is
used for long-term treatment
of muscular tension. For irritable
bowel syndrome, take 14 tsp
diluted with hot water twice a day.

Lotion (to make, p. 296) relieves
aching muscles. Rub into tense
neck and shoulders.

relief. As the muscles relax, blood
flow to the area improves, waste
products such as lactic acid are
removed, and normal function
can return.

■ Other uses Cramp bark is
commonly used in treatments
for high blood pressure and other
circulatory conditions.

Self-help Uses

■ Back pain, p. 3 13.

■ Breathing difficulties, p. 301.

■ Cramps & muscle spasms, p. 3 12.

■ Period pain, p. 3 15.

■ Poor circulation to the
hands & feet, p. 302.

■ Spastic constipation, p. 307.

■ Stomach spasm, p. 305.

V IT EX AGNUS-CASTUS

Vitex agnus-castus (Verbenaceae)

Chaste Tree, Agnus Castus

Chaste tree was well known in ancient times and
featured in Homer’s 6th-century bce epic, the Iliad , as
a symbol of chastity capable of warding off evil. As the
name “chaste tree’’ implies, it was thought to reduce
sexual desire, and traditionally it was chewed by monks
to reduce unwanted libido. Research has confirmed that
chaste tree has a hormonal action, and today it is used
for menstrual problems and infertility.

Chaste tree has small, fragrant, lilac flowers in
summer that grow in whorls on long spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation

Chaste tree is native to the
Mediterranean region and western
Asia. It is cultivated in subtropical
areas around the world, and has
become naturalized in many regions.

It is grown from seed in spring
or autumn. The ripe berries are
collected in autumn.

Related Species

As a member of the Verbenaceae
genus, chaste tree is a distant
relative of vervain (Verbena officinalis,
p. 149) and lemon verbena (Lippia
citriodora, p. 228).

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (cineol)

■ Flavonoids (casticin)

■ Iridoids (aucubin, agnoside,
eurostoside)

■ Diterpenes

Key Actions

■ Regulates hormones

■ Progesterogenic

■ Increases breast-milk production

■ Aids sleep

Research

■ Hormonal properties The

berries are thought to induce subtle
hormonal effects within the brain,
leading to increased levels of the
neurotransmitters dopamine and
melatonin. These changes are
thought to promote better hormonal
regulation of the menstrual cycle,
notably through raised progesterone
levels. In some people, the raised
melatonin levels may aid sleep quality.
The diterpenes are thought to be
chiefly responsible for these effects.

■ Gynecological problems
Clinical research by and large
supports the use of chaste tree in
many female hormonal problems,
including premenstrual syndrome
(PMS), irregular menstruation,
breast tenderness, and infertility.

A 2001 clinical trial tested chaste
berry against placebo in 178 women
with PMS. After 3 months, those
taking chaste tree had a 50%
reduction in symptoms compared
to placebo.

■ Sleep aid Since researchers
found that chaste berry increases
melatonin levels, chaste berry has
been thought of as a possible sleep
aid. Some small studies indicate that
chaste berry might help people with
insomnia due to unhealthy melatonin
levels, such as shift workers or those
who are jet lagged.

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Menstrual problems Chaste
tree is probably the most used herb
in Western herbal medicine for
regulating the menstrual cycle. With
its progestogenic action, chaste tree

Chaste tree

A deciduous aromatic
tree growing to 23 ft
(7 m), with palm¬
shaped leaves and
small lilac flowers.

Key Preparations
& Their Uses

O Caution Excess can cause formication (a sensation of ants
crawling on the skin). Concurrent use with the contraceptive pill
or fertility treatment is not advisable. Avoid in pregnancy. In rare
cases may cause gastrointestinal upset, headache, or dizziness.

E3 Parts Used

Berries, harvested in
autumn, are used to treat
female fertility problems.

Dried berries

Tiny ye I low-red
berries contain
hormonal
substances

Fresh berries

r

Tablets Take for premenstrual syndrome.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). For an irregular cycle, take 40 drops with water
daily for 3 months.

is often helpful in relieving
premenstrual symptoms, including
irritability and lowered mood,
headache, acne, and breast
tenderness. Chaste tree also
promotes greater menstrual
regularity, and this use extends to
more significant hormonal problems
including polycystic ovary syndrome,
fibroids, and endometriosis.

■ Irregular periods The herb
helps to regulate irregular periods,
tending to shorten a long cycle and
lengthen a short one.

■ Infertility Chaste tree can be
of help to some women trying to
conceive if infertility is due to low
progesterone levels.

■ Difficulty in breastfeeding The

berries are taken to increase breast-
milk production.

■ Acne Though rarely used on its
own, chaste tree can be extremely
helpful in treating acne in both men
and women. Used in combination
with herbs such as echinacea

(i Echinacea spp., p. 92), it will often
reduce the frequency and intensity
of acne blemishes where hormonal
imbalance is a major factor.

Self-help Uses

■ Aiding conception, p. 3 16.

■ Decreased estrogen &
progesterone levels, p. 3 16.

■ Irregular cycle, p. 3 15.

151

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

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152

W I T H A N I A S 0 M N I F E R A

Withania somnifera (Solanaceae)

Ashwagandha

Ashwagandha

A stout shrub growing
to 5 ft (1.5 m), with
oval leaves and
greenish or yellow
flowers.

Ashwagandha has been called “Indian ginseng” because it is
used in Ayurveda in much the same way that ginseng is
used in Chinese medicine: to improve vitality and to aid
recovery after chronic illness. Today, ashwagandha seems to
be an herb designed to deal with the busy nature of
modern life. It invigorates when fatigued, eases the impact
of stress and anxiety, and aids sleep—all traditional uses
largely supported by clinical research.

Ashwagandha has powerful medicinal
properties proven by research.

Habitat & Cultivation

Ashwagandha is found in India,
the Mediterranean, and the Middle
East. It is propagated from seed
or cuttings in spring. The leaves are
harvested in spring, and the fruit
and root in autumn.

Key Constituents

■ Alkaloids

■ Steroidal lactones (withanolides)

■ Iron

Key Actions

■ Adaptogenic

■ Tonic

■ Mild sedative

Research

■ Chronic stress Clinical research
has been wide-ranging and examined
many aspects of ashwagandha’s
potential medicinal uses, many linked
to the withanolides, compounds
similar to the body’s own steroid
hormones. A 2012 Indian clinical
trial noted that those taking
ashwagandha had lower stress
levels and an increased sense of

well-being, as well as lower cortisol
and blood pressure levels.

■ Anxiety and tension

Ashwagandha has been proven to
reduce anxiety and tension in at least
6 clinical trials. In a 2009 Canadian
trial, ashwagandha, paired with dietary
advice and a multivitamin supplement,
was found more effective in decreasing
anxiety than psychotherapy and a
placebo. Those taking ashwagandha
also reported improved concentration
and less fatigue.

■ Male fertility Two clinical trials
testing ashwagandha’s role as a male
sexual tonic indicate that the herb
markedly improves semen quality.
Another clinical trial failed to find any
benefit in aiding erectile dysfunction.

■ Other actions Ashwagandha has
also been researched for its use as a
tonic suitable for children, to
improve muscle strength and mental
function in the elderly, for arthritis,
and to enhance immune function.
Ashwagandha is thought to have
anti cancer activity.

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Ayurvedic tonic Ashwagandha
has always been valued in Ayurveda
for its tonic, strengthening, and
relaxing properties. Robert Svoboda
in Ayurveda: Life, Health, and Longevity
states that it “clarifies the mind, calms
and strengthens the nerves, and
promotes sound restful sleep.”

■ Restorative Today, the herb is still
prized as a tonic, but valued also for its
unusual combination of actions. As a
tonic, it strengthens and supports
physical and mental performance, yet
at the same time it relieves anxiety

Key Preparations & Their Uses

Decoction of the root (to make, p. 29 I). Powder made from the leaves.

For stress, decoct 5 g with A cup (75 ml) For anemia, take A tsp in a little

water and take over 2 days. water once a day.

Capsules of powdered root (to make, p. 292). For nervous exhaustion,
take I -2 g a day with water.

e

Dried berries

0 Parts Used

Leaves contain the most
withanolides, constituents that
inhibit cancer cell growth.

Dried leaves

Root is powdered or
made into decoctions and
taken as a strengthening
and calming tonic.

Fresh plant

Fresh root

and, as its botanical name suggests,
encourages better sleep quality. It is
an excellent herb for convalescence.

■ Inflammatory conditions

Ashwagandha can be a useful
addition to treatment for chronic
inflammatory diseases such as
rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis.

■ Long-term stress By reducing
overactivity and encouraging rest and

relaxation, ashwagandha is
useful in countering the debility that
accompanies long-term stress.

■ Anemia Aswagandha’s high iron
content makes it useful in anemia.

Self-help Uses

■ Long-term stress &
convalescence, pp. 308 & 3 19.

■ Male fertility, p. 3 16.

ZANTHOXYLUM AMERICANUM

Zanthoxylum americanum (Rutaceae)

Prickly ash, Toothache Tree

Indigenous to North America, prickly ash is
a warming, stimulating herb for circulation. It was
held in high regard by Native North Americans for its
medicinal properties, and both the bark and berries
were chewed to alleviate rheumatism and toothache.
Today, prickly ash is mainly given for arthritic
and rheumatic conditions, but it is also helpful for
certain digestive problems and for leg ulcers.

Prickly ash is antirheumatic and improves
circulation.

Habitat & Cultivation

Prickly ash is native to southern
Canada and northern, central, and
western parts of the U.S., preferring
moist, shady sites such as woodlands.
It is propagated from seed in
autumn. The bark is harvested in
spring and the berries are collected
in summer.

Related Species

Southern prickly ash (Z. clova-herculis)
grows in the central and southern
U.S., where it is used interchangeably
with prickly ash. Chuan jiao
(Z. bungeanum ) is given in Chinese
herbal medicine for “cold” patterns
of illness causing abdominal pain.

Z. capense is taken for colic in
South Africa. Z. zanthoxyloides is a
traditional West African herb for
rheumatic conditions.

Key Constituents

■ Isoquinoline alkaloids

■ Furanocoumarins

■ Lignans

■ Volatile oil

■ Tannins

Key Actions

■ Circulatory stimulant

■ Increases sweating

■ Antirheumatic

■ Antifungal

Research

■ Antifungal Research into prickly
ash is limited, though a 2005 study
found extracts from prickly ash fruit
and leaf demonstrated antifungal
activity.

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ North American herb Prickly
ash was a Native American remedy
for toothache and rheumatism. It was
used in the U.S. during the 19th
century as a circulatory stimulant and
to treat arthritis.

■ Arthritic conditions Western
herbalists regard northern prickly
ash as a prime remedy for rheumatic
and arthritic problems. It stimulates
blood flow to painful and stiff joints,
promoting the supply of oxygen and
nutrients to the area and removing
waste products.

■ Circulation The herb improves
circulation in intermittent claudication
and Raynaud’s disease, conditions
where the arteries of the limbs have
narrowed, preventing sufficient blood
reaching the hand or leg muscles.

■ Other uses Prickly ash relieves gas
and diarrhea and tones the digestive
tract. It is applied topically to treat leg
ulcers and chronic pelvic
inflammatory disease.

Self-help Uses

■ Back pain, p. 3 13.

■ Poor circulation, p. 302

Prickly ash

A deciduous shrub
growing to 10 ft (3 m),
with thorny gray
branches and
compound leaves.

E3 Parts Used

Bark is considered to
have a stronger effect
than the berries. It is
used in preparations
to stimulate blood flow.

Fresh bark

5

into remedies for
poor circulation.

Berries and bark
were chewed
for toothache

Dried chopped bark

Dried berries

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Avoid in pregnancy and while breastfeeding.

Tincture of bark (to make, p. 292).
For arthritis, take 20 drops with
water 3 times a day.

Decoction For poor circulation, decoct
3 tsp ginger and 3 tsp prickly ash berries
with 3 cups (750 ml) water (see p. 291).
Take % cup (150 ml) twice a day.

A

Tablets Take tablets, which often contain
other herbs, for arthritis and rheumatism.

Lotion For poor circulation in the legs, make
a decoction of bark (p. 291) and apply.

153

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

Z E A M A Y S

154

Zea mays (Poaceae)

Corn, Maize, Cornsilk, Yu Mi Shu (Chinese)

The staple food of Central and South America for at least
4,000 years, corn is also used medicinally in countless
different ways. The Aztecs gave a corn meal decoction
for dysentery and “heat in the heart,” and to increase
breast-milk production. Cornsilk (the silky fronds
wrapped around the cob) has always been the part most
used medicinally, and it is of particular value in treating
urinary conditions.

Corn's Latin name reflects its value —
zea means “cause of life" and mays means
“our mother."

Habitat & Cultivation

Cultivated almost universally as a
food crop, corn is native to the
Andes and Central America, possibly
originating in Peru. It is propagated
from seed in spring. The cornsilk
is harvested with the ripe cob in
summer, then separated and dried.

Related Species

Cornsmut ( Ustilogo zeoe), a fungus that
grows on corn, is used by the Zuni of
New Mexico to speed childbirth and
stop uterine hemorrhage.

Key Constituents

■ Flavonoids

■ Carotenoids

Cob:

■ Anthocyanins (purple corn)
Cornsilk:

■ Carotenoids

■ Volatile oil

■ Sterols

Key Actions

■ Urinary demulcent

■ Diuretic

■ Mildly stimulates bile secretion

■ Gently lowers blood pressure

Research

■ Purple corn Purple corn contains
unusually high levels of anthocyanins,
dark red or blue plant pigments
that have strong antioxidant and
protective effects within the body.

A 2007 paper reported that, weight
for weight, purple corn contained
nearly four times more anthocyanins
than blueberries, suggesting that
purple corn could be a key dietary
source of anthocyanins.

■ Carotenoids Corncob and
cornsilk contain high levels of
carotenoids (including lutein and
zeaxanthin), compounds that are
thought to protect the eye from
oxidative damage. Zeaxanthin in
particular is thought to protect against
age-related macular degeneration.

Traditional &

Current Uses

■ Traditional herb Corn meal has
been used by Native Americans for
a wide range of ailments. It makes
an effective poultice and has been
given in Mayan, Incan, and American
medicine to treat bruises, swellings,
sores, boils, and similar conditions.
Virgil J. Vogel writes that “the
Chickasaw Indians treated itching
skin, followed by sores when scratched,
by burning old corncobs and holding
the affected part over the smoke.”

■ Urinary remedy Cornsilk is
a gentle-acting diuretic with mild
antibiotic activity. It can help in acute
and chronic cases of cystitis and is
commonly used in prostate disorders.
It may also prove useful in frequent

Corn

An annual grass
reaching 10 ft (3 m),
with plumelike
male flowers. Female
flowers produce cobs.

0 Key Preparations & Their Uses

# $

Infusion of cornsilk (to make, Decoction of meal (to make, p. 29 I).

p. 291) is soothing. For cystitis, Apply as a poultice (see p. 295) to

drink 2 cups (500 ml) daily. sores and boils.

s?

Fresh meal

The outer leaves of corn are
stripped to reveal the cornsilk
and meal.

Capsules of cornsilk (to make, p. 292). For edema, take 2 g daily.

Tincture of cornsilk (to make, p. 292). For cystitis, combine Z cup (80 ml) with
I tbsp of buchu tincture and take I tsp with water 3 times a day.

Cornsilk (stamens)
can be used fresh or
dried as a remedy for
urinary disorders.

Yellow, inner

Meal is used
externally to treat
bruises and other

Dried cornsilk

Fresh

cornsilk

E3 Parts Used

urination and bladder irritability.

■ Kidney stones Cornsilk is
thought to have a beneficial effect
on the kidneys, reducing kidney stone
formation and relieving some of

the symptoms of existing stones.

■ Chinese remedy In China,

cornsilk is used to treat fluid
retention and jaundice.

Self-help Uses

■ Fluid retention in
pregnancy, p. 3 17.

■ Urinary infections, p. 3 14.

ZINGIBER OFFICINALE

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Ginger, Shengjian (Chinese), Singabera (Sanskrit)

Ginger

A perennial growing
to 2 ft (60 cm), with
lance-shaped leaves
and spikes of white
or yellow flowers.

Familiar as a spice and flavoring, ginger is also one of
the world's best medicines. It has been revered in Asia
since the earliest times, and in medieval Europe it was
thought to have derived from the Garden of Eden. Gingers
warming and anti-inflammatory properties can bring relief
to problems as varied as headache and migraine, joint
pain, indigestion, motion sickness, and morning sickness.
Fresh ginger has a pungent, slightly lemony taste.

Ginger, widely used as a spice, is also an
important digestive remedy.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Asia, ginger is grown
throughout the tropics. It is
propagated by dividing the
rootstock. Ginger flourishes in
fertile soil and needs plenty of
rain. The rhizome is unearthed
when the plant is 10 months old.

It is washed, soaked, and sometimes
boiled and peeled.

Related Species

Various Zingiber species are used
medicinally, but no other has benefits
equal to ginger. Turmeric (Curcuma
longa, p. 90) is a close relative.

Key Constituents

■ Volatile oil (1-3%)

—zingiberene (20-30%)

■ Oleoresin (4-7.5%)

—gingerol, shogaols

Key Actions

■ Anti-inflammatory

■ Circulatory stimulant

■ Antiemetic

■ Antiviral

■ Digestive stimulant

Research

■ Digestive health Ginger speeds
up the rate of gastric emptying and
aids the absorption of nutrients from
the digestive tract. By improving iron
absorption, it helps to treat anemia.
Clinical trials indicate that it can
relieve nausea and vomiting.

■ Morning sickness A 2013
Australian review of clinical trials
using ginger to relieve pregnancy-
induced nausea and vomiting
concluded that “The best available
evidence suggests that ginger is a safe
and effective treatment for PNV.”

■ Pain relief Several small-
scale research studies have found
that ginger reduces muscle pain,
for example, after exercise.

This is because of a potent anti¬
inflammatory action. One study
found that after 2 months of
treatment, ginger was as effective
in relieving menstrual cramps as
mefenamic acid (an aspirin-type
painkiller). A 2014 Iranian clinical
trial compared the effects of ginger
and sumatripan (a painkiller) in
relieving migraine, and reported
that the two treatments were
similarly effective.

Traditional
& Current Uses

■ Digestive problems Ginger
is thought to be helpful for almost
all digestive complaints. It is an
excellent remedy for symptoms
such as indigestion, nausea, gas,
bloating, and cramps—whether
taken as an infusion, juice, tincture,
or powder, or with food. Its
antiseptic activity makes it valuable
in all gastrointestinal infections,

E3 Parts Used

Rhizome contains high levels of a volatile

oil that is warming and stimulating. Yellowish fresh rhizome

Key Preparations & Their Uses

O Cautions Do not take ginger in medicinal doses if suffering from peptic ulcers.
Do not take the essential oil internally except under professional supervision.
Maximum recommended dose in pregnancy and if taking anticoagulants is 2 g dried
(4 g fresh) root a day.

Infusion (to make, p. 29 I).

For nausea, drink % cup
(150 ml) 3 times a day.

Essential oil For arthritic
aches and pains, dilute
5 drops in 20 drops carrier
oil and apply (see p. 297).

Capsules (to make, p. 292). For morning sickness, take a 75 mg capsule every hour.

Tincture (to make, p. 292). To improve digestion, take 30 drops with water
twice a day.

including food poisoning.

■ Circulatory stimulant Ginger
stimulates circulation, and helps
blood to flow to the surface, making
it an important remedy for chilblains
and poor circulation to the hands
and feet. Juice squeezed from fresh
ginger root can be applied to
chilblains (and cold sores), bringing
quick relief.

■ Respiratory conditions Ginger
has antiviral activity and is a first-rate
remedy for coughs, colds, flu, and
other respiratory problems. Despite
its warming properties, ginger

stimulates sweating and helps to
cool and control fevers.

Self-help Uses

■ Chilblains, p. 302.

■ Colds, flu, & fevers, p. 3 I I.

■ Cold sores, p. 304.

■ Constipation, p. 307.

■ Digestive upsets,
gas, & colic, p. 3 I 8.

■ High blood pressure &
arteriosclerosis, p. 301.

■ Morning sickness, p. 3 17.

■ Nausea & motion sickness,
p. 306.

155

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0 KEY MEDICINAL PLANTS

' . ,

OTHER MEDICINAL

PLANTS

The index of Other Medicinal Plants features in Latin name order over 450 plants that have
played a significant role in herbal medicine worldwide. They include familiar plants such as
oats (Aveno sotivo, p. 175) and exotic herbs like ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata, p. I 82). Some
are well researched, while others are known only within their native region. A number of
medicinal plants included have fallen out of favor but remain historically significant. In
addition, the index features plants such as eucommia bark (Eucommia ulmoides, p. 207)
that research shows have the potential for a more prominent medicinal role in the future.

PLANT NAMES

The Latin name given is the one by which the plant is most
generally known in medical herbalism. Latin synonyms are
also provided. The first part of the Latin name designates
the plant’s genus (sub-family). The second part specifies the
species name. In brackets after the Latin name(s) comes
the plant’s family name, the broader class to which the genus
belongs. The plant’s common name(s) are beneath the family
name. If more than one common name is in popular use,
they are listed in order of importance. Where appropriate,
the origins of common names are given in brackets.

DESCRIPTION

Lists significant botanical information, including whether
the plant is evergreen or deciduous and whether it is
annual, biennial, or perennial. Gives identifying
characteristics of the plant.

HABITAT & CULTIVATION

Includes the plant’s origins, its distribution, preferred
growing conditions, and the seasons when it is propagated
and harvested.

PARTS USED

Lists those parts of the plant that are used medicinally in
order of importance.

CONSTITUENTS

Gives the key active constituents of the plant in order of
significance. Sometimes includes details of a constituent’s
specific medicinal action on the body. Note: To find out
more about constituents and their actions, see How
Medicinal Plants Work , pp. 10-16.

HISTORY & FOLKLORE

Provides information such as the derivation of the herb’s
name, traditional lore, and quotations from old herbals
showing how the plant was regarded in the past, and
how it was used medicinally. Also includes details of the
plant’s other uses.

MEDICINAL ACTIONS & USES

Encompasses both the confirmed and presumed actions of
the whole plant (as opposed to isolated active constituents).
Discusses the symptoms and illnesses that the plant is
used to treat and the varying ways that the herb is used
medicinally in different herbal traditions.

RESEARCH

Gives details of scientific research into the plant, its
constituents, and its extracts, including the results of any
clinical trials.

RELATED SPECIES

Provides information on related species that have a
medicinal use. Gives a cross-reference to those species
that have an entry in the Encyclopedia.

CAUTIONS

Gives cautions about using the herb medicinally and about
the plant in general. States if the plant, its constituents, or
its extracts are legally restricted.

O Considered safe as a medicine but potentially harmful
if used inappropriately. Particular safety issues are listed.
Where a plant is listed as “Take only under professional
supervision,” it is not suitable for home use.

©Known to be toxic or unsafe as a medicine. Do not self-
medicate with these plants. Some plants with this symbol
may be safely prescribed by experienced healthcare
practitioners within a very narrow dosage range. At a
higher dose, such plants will be poisonous.

SELF-HELP USES

Cross-refers to the self-help treatments in Remedies
for Common Ailments. Note: Always read the cautions about
the herb and the information on pp. 290 & 298-299 before
attempting a self-help use.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

ABIES B A LS A M EA

Abies balsamea (Pinaceae)

Balsam Fir

Description Conical evergreen tree growing
to 90 ft (27 m). Has aromatic needle-like leaves
and purple fir cones.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, balsam fir is commercially grown for
its timber. The resin is tapped from 60- to 80-
year-old trees in spring.

Parts Used Oleoresin, leaves.

Constituents Balsam fir leaves contain a
liquid oleoresin.

History & Folklore Balsam fir resin, often
known as Canada balsam, was used for many
illnesses by both Native Americans and settlers.
The Penobscot smeared the resin on burns, cuts,
and sores, while others applied it to the chest and
back for colds and chest problems. The Pillagers
used the aromatic needles in their sweat lodges,
inhaling smoke from the burning leaves. Dr.
Wooster Beech (1794-1868), founder of the
Eclectic healing movement, regarded balsam fir as
stimulating and axative when taken internally, and
emollient and cooling when used externally. Balsam
fir leaves, cones, and resin are commonly added
to potpourri.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Balsam fir is
antiseptic and stimulant, and has been used in
North America and Europe for congestion, chest
infections such as bronchitis, and urinary tract
conditions such as cystitis and frequent urination.
Externally, balsam fir was rubbed on the chest or
applied as a plaster for respiratory infections. It is
not used much in herbal medicine today.

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Jequirity

Description Deciduous climber growing to
12 ft (4 m). Has compound leaves, clusters of
pink flowers, and seed pods containing scarlet
or (rarely) white seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Jequirity is native
to India, and now grows in hedges and among
bushes in all tropical regions.

Parts Used Root, leaves, seeds.

Constituents Jequirity seeds contain
abrin, indole alkaloids, triterpenoid saponins,
and anthocyanins. The root and leaves contain
glycyrrhizin and traces of abrin. Abrin is
extremely toxic.

History & Folklore Jequirity seeds have been
used since ancient times in India to help weigh
precious materials, including the famous Koh-i-noor
diamond. The seeds are notorious as a poison.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Jequirity seeds
158 have been used medicinally in the past as a

contraceptive, abortifacient (to induce a
miscarriage), and as a treatment for chronic
conjunctivitis. However, they are so poisonous
that even external application can be fatal. In
laboratory experiments, extracts of the seeds
had a strong antifertility effect on sperm
production and fertility. The ground root is
traditionally taken to treat worm infestation.
© Cautions Never use the seeds. Use the
leaves and roots only under professional
supervision. Jequirity is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Jequirity seeds were used medicinally in former times,
but are also extremely poisonous.

Abutilon indicum (Malvaceae)

Kanghi,

Indian Mallow

Description Upright, woody shrub growing to 5
ft (1.5 m). Has a downy, slightly oily surface, single
yellow flowers, and kidney-shaped seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Kanghi grows
throughout much of India in addition to
Southeast Asia.

Parts Used Root, bark, leaves, seeds.
Constituents Kanghi contains mucilage, tannins,
and asparagine. Asparagine is diuretic.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Also known as
Indian mallow, kanghi is used in much the same
way as marshmallow (Althaea officinalis, p. 165),
one of the main European demulcent herbs. The
root, leaves, and bark of kanghi are mucilaginous
and are used to soothe and protect the mucous
membranes of the respiratory and urinary systems.
A decoction of the root is given for chest conditions
such as bronchitis. The mucilaginous effect benefits
the skin; an infusion, poultice, or paste made from
the powdered root or bark is applied to wounds
and used for conditions such as boils and ulcers.

A decoction of the root can also be used to good
effect as a mouthwash for toothache and sore and

infected gums. The seeds are laxative and “useful
in killing threadworms, if the rectum of the
affected child be exposed to the smoke of the
powdered seeds” (Herbs that Heal, H. K. Bakhru,

1992). The plant has an antiseptic effect within the
urinary tract.

Related Species A. trisulcatum, native to
Central America, is used to treat asthma in
children, and is applied as a poultice for treating
cancerous sores and ulcers, especially of the
mouth and cervix.

Acacia catechu syn. Senegalia
catechu (Fabaceae)

Black Catechu,

Cutch

Description Tree growing to 49 ft (15 m)
with thorny branches and divided, feathery leaves.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India,
Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, and East Africa, this
tree is cultivated for its timber. It grows to altitudes
of 4,900 ft (1,500 m).

Parts Used Bark, heartwood, leaves, shoots.
Constituents The shiny, black-brown extract
of leaves and young shoots, which is called “cutch,”
becomes a brittle solid when dried, and is the
form in which black catechu is generally sold.
Cutch contains 25-60% tannins, 20-30% mucilage,
flavonoids, and resins.

Black catechu is an astringent and antiseptic.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Black catechu
is a strong astringent and clotting agent. It helps
reduce excess mucus in the nose, the large
intestine, or vagina. It is also used to treat
eczema, hemorrhages, diarrhea, and dysentery.
It may be used as an infusion, tincture, powder,
or ointment. A small piece of cutch dissolved in
the mouth is an excellent remedy for bleeding
gums and canker sores. The powder and tincture

ACHYRANTHES BIDEN TA T A

are also applied to infected gums and have been
used to clean the teeth. In Ayurvedic medicine,
decoctions of the bark and heartwood are
used for sore throats.

Research Cutch has been shown to lower
blood pressure.

Related Species See also babul (Acacia nilotica,
following entry).

Cautions Do not take for more than 2-3 weeks
at a time, or if suffering from kidney inflammation.
There are some countries where cutch is subject
to legal restrictions.

Self-help Use Diarrhea, p. 307.

Acacia nilotica syn. A. arabica
(Fabaceae)

Babul

Description Tree growing to 65 ft (20 m) with
hard, rust-brown bark and feathery leaves. Small,
bright yellow flower heads produce pods up to 6 in
(15 cm) long.

Habitat & Cultivation Babul is native to
North Africa. Today it is commonly found in Egypt
and is cultivated in India.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Babul contains tannins (12-20%),
mucilage, and flavonoids.

History & Folklore In ancient Egypt, the
wood of the babul tree was used to make
dwellings, wheels, and tool handles. The leaves,
flowers, and pods were used to expel worms, heal
wounds, alleviate diarrhea, and suppress the
coughing up of blood.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Strongly
astringent, babul is used to contract and toughen
mucous membranes throughout the body in
much the same way as witch hazel (Hamamelis
virginiana, p. 102) or oak bark (Quercus robur,
p. 260). Babul may be made into a variety of
preparations: for instance, a lotion for treating
bleeding gums, a gargle for easing the irritation of
sore throats, a wash for eczema, an eyewash for
conjunctivitis and other eye problems, and a
douche for excessive vaginal discharge. It is also
taken internally to treat diarrhea.

Research Research published in 1993 concluded
that babul may be clinically effective in periodontal
infections. Another study indicates that the gum
stimulates insulin release from the pancreas and
lowers blood-sugar levels.

Related Species Australian wattle (A. decurrens ),
native to Australia, is used in much the same way
as babul. See also black catechu (A. catechu ,
preceding entry).

Cautions Do not take babul internally for more
than 2-3 weeks. Acacia species are subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Acanthus mollis (Acanthaceae)

Acanthus,

Bear’s Breeches

Description Perennial growing to 3 ft (I m).
Has a black, branched taproot; white, purple, or
blue flowers; and dark green basal leaves up to
3 ft (I m) in length.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
acanthus is most commonly found as a garden
plant. It prefers damp sites and low-lying ground.
The leaves are gathered in early summer and
the roots in autumn.

Parts Used Leaves, roots.

Constituents Acanthus contains large
quantities of mucilage and tannin.

History & Folklore Acanthus was well
known in the ancient world. Callimacus, a Greek
architect of the 5th century bce, reputedly
created the decorative pattern of foliage at the
top of Corinthian columns after being inspired
by the perfect symmetry of acanthus leaves. The
description of acanthus in Materia Medica, written
in the I st century ce by the Greek physician

Dioscorides, is one of the most accurate botanical
descriptions to survive from the ancient world.
Dioscorides recommended the roots in the form
of a plaster to treat burns and to wrap around
dislocated joints. As an infusion, acanthus was
thought to be diuretic. It was also used to relieve
gas and spasms and to soothe damaged nerves.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The herbs
appreciable quantities of mucilage and tannin
substantiate its traditional use as a treatment for
dislocated joints and burns. Its emollient properties
make it useful in the treatment of irritated mucous
membranes in the digestive and urinary tracts.
Acanthus is similar to marshmallow (Althaea
officinalis, p. 165) in that it can be used externally
to ease irritation, and internally to heal and protect.

Achyranthes bidentata
(Amaranthaceae)

Chaff flower,

Huai Niu Xi (Chinese)

Description Erect perennial herb growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has slender, rambling branches,
elliptical leaves, and greenish-white flowers on
terminal spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Chaff flower is found
in China at the edge of forests, along streams, and
amid bushes. Grown commercially in the eastern
provinces, the root is unearthed in winter once the
foliage has died back.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Achyranthes species contain
triterpenoid saponins and sterones.

History & Folklore Chaff flowers
potent ability to bring on menstruation led the
13th-century Chinese gynecologist Chen Ziming
to prohibit its use during pregnancy to avoid
causing miscarriage.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In traditional
Chinese medicine, chaff flower is believed to
invigorate blood flow. It is used to stimulate
menstruation when a period is delayed or scanty.
The herb is also prescribed to ease period
pain. Chaff flower is used to relieve pain in the
lower back, especially where the discomfort
is attributable to kidney stones. The herb is
also taken as a treatment for canker sores,
toothache, bleeding gums, and nosebleeds.
Research Research suggests that chaff flower
may lower blood pressure by reducing heart
rate and dilating the peripheral arteries.

Related Species A. aspera, found in tropical
areas worldwide, is used in Ayurvedic medicine
to treat chest conditions and a range of
digestive problems.

Caution Do not take chaff flower
during pregnancy.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

A C 0 NI T U M NAPELLUS

Aconitum napellus (Ranunculaceae)

Aconite,

Monkshood

Description Perennial herb growing to 5 ft
(1.5 m). Has dark green lobed leaves with violet or
blue delphinium-like flowers on long spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Aconite grows mainly
in southern and central Europe. It prefers damp
and shady sites, and is cultivated as a garden plant.
The root is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Aconite contains 0.3-2%
terpenoid alkaloids, principally aconitine.

History & Folklore Aconitum species have
traditionally been used as arrow poisons.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Aconite is
poisonous in all but the smallest doses, and is
rarely prescribed for internal use. More commonly,
it is applied to unbroken skin to relieve pain from
bruises or neurological conditions. In Ayurvedic
medicine, aconite is used to treat neuralgia, asthma,
and heart weakness. Aconite is also used extensively
in homeopathy as an analgesic and sedative.
Related Species Chinese aconite (A carmichaelii )
is used in China for shock and to support the
circulatory system in emergencies. Trials in China
indicate that it is helpful in congestive heart failure.
© ©Cautions Aconite is highly toxic and
is subject to legal restriction in some countries.

Use only under professional supervision.

Adiantum capillus-veneris
(Polypodiaceae)

Maidenhair Fern

Adonis vernalis (Ranunculaceae)

False FHellebore,

Yellow Pheasant’s Eye

Adhatoda vasica (Acanthaceae)

Malabar Nut,

Vasaka

Description Fern with delicate fronds growing
to I ft (30 cm) long.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
Asia, most of the Americas, and Australasia.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Maidenhair fern contains
flavonoids (including rutin and isoquercitin),
terpenoids (including adiantone), tannin,
proanthocyanidins, and mucilage.

History & Folklore Maidenhair fern has been
used since ancient times. Pliny the Elder (23-79 ce)
states that the herb “is of singular efficacy in
expelling and breaking calculi of the bladder.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Commonly
used in Fatin America and occasionally in Europe,
a decoction or tincture of maidenhair fern is used
as an expectorant to treat coughs, bronchitis, sore
throat, and chronic nasal congestion. The plant has
a longstanding reputation as a remedy for
conditions affecting the hair and scalp.

Related Species A. caudatum has been shown
to act as an antispasmodic and could be useful in
the treatment of asthma.

Maidenhair fern is used
for chest complaints.

Description Perennial herb growing to 8 in
(20 cm). Has a scaly stem and feathery compound
leaves. Stem bears large, bright yellow flowers up
to 3 in (8 cm) across.

Description Evergreen shrub growing to 10 ft
(3 m), with lance-shaped leaves, white or purple
flowers, and 4-seeded fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
India, malabar nut grows in low-lying regions up
to the Himalayan foothills.

Parts Used Leaves, root, flowers, fruit (nut).
Constituents Malabar nut contains
pyrroloquinoline alkaloids and an unidentified
volatile oil.

History & Folklore The highly bitter-tasting
malabar nut is a traditional Ayurvedic remedy for
chest problems.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to its

expectorant qualities, malabar nut is useful for
bronchitis and other chest conditions. An Ayurvedic
preparation that includes malabar flowers is used to
treat tuberculosis. All parts of the plant are used
to expel worms. A poultice of the fresh leaves
is applied to wounds and to inflamed joints.
Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

False hellebore’s cardiac glycosides help to slow
down heart rate.

Habitat & Cultivation Originating from the
steppes of Russia and from the Black Sea region,
this herb is native to much of Europe but not to
Britain. It grows in mountain pasture undergrowth.
It is rare and legally protected in Western Europe.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents False hellebore contains cardiac
glycosides, including adonitoxin.

History & Folklore False hellebore’s botanical
name refers to Adonis, a figure in Greek mythology
associated with the seasonal renewal of plant life.
Medicinal Actions & Uses False hellebore
contains cardiac glycosides similar to those found
in foxglove (Digitalis purpurea, p. 202). These
substances improve the heart’s efficiency, increasing
its output while at the same time slowing its rate.
Unlike foxglove, however, false hellebore’s effect
on the heart is slightly sedative, and it is generally
prescribed for patients with hearts that are beating
too fast or irregularly. False hellebore is also
recommended as a treatment for certain cases of
low blood pressure. In common with other plants
containing cardiac glycosides, false hellebore is
strongly diuretic and can be used to counter water
retention, particularly in cases of poor circulatory
function. False hellebore is used in homeopathic
medicine as a treatment for angina.

© Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Gathering wild plants and their
medicinal use are subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

AGAVE AMERICANA

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Bael,

Bengal Quince

Description Thorny deciduous tree growing
to 26 ft (8 m). Has aromatic oval- to lance-shaped
leaves, greenish-white flowers, and yellow plum¬
shaped fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India, bael
grows throughout much of Southeast Asia in dry
forests. It is also cultivated throughout the region.
Parts Used Fruit, leaves, root, twigs.
Constituents Bael contains coumarins,
flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, carotinoids, and
volatile oil.

History & Folklore The bael tree is sacred to
the Hindu deities Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth
and good fortune) and Shiva (the god of health),
and it is commonly planted near temples. Its
medicinal virtues are described in the Charaka
Samhita, an herbal text written c. 400 bce.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent
half-ripe bael fruit reduces irritation in the digestive
tract and is excellent for diarrhea and dysentery.
The ripe fruit is demulcent and laxative, with a
significant vitamin C content. It eases stomach pain
and supports the healthy function of this organ.
Bael’s astringent leaves are taken to treat peptic
ulcers. The tree’s most unusual application is for
earache. A piece of dried root is dipped in the oil
of the neem tree ( Azodirachta indica, p. 70) and set
alight. Oil from the burning end is dripped into the
ear. (This is not a recommended practice.)
Self-help Use Diarrhea, p. 307.

Agastache rugosa (Lamiaceae)

Korean Mint,

Huo Xiang (Chinese)

Medicinal Actions & Uses The acrid
Korean mint is considered a warming herb in
Oriental herbal medicine (see pp. 40-43) and is
used to treat “dampness” within the digestive
system. In Korea, as its name suggests, the leaves
are eaten as a condiment to aid digestion. The
herb stimulates and warms the digestive tract,
relieving symptoms such as abdominal bloating,
indigestion, nausea, and vomiting. It is commonly
used to relieve vomiting and morning sickness.
Korean mint is used to treat the early stages of viral
infections that feature symptoms such as
stomachache and nausea. A lotion containing
Korean mint may be applied to fungal conditions
such as ringworm.

Research Laboratory experiments indicate
that Korean mint has marked activity against
fungal infections.

Related Species In southern China and
Taiwan, Pogostemon coblin is used interchangeably
with Korean mint. R coblin is a close relative of
the Indian plant R patchouli, from which patchouli
oil is produced.

Description Aromatic perennial or biennial
herb growing to 4 ft (1.2 m). Has a square stem,
triangular leaves, and purple flowers growing in
dense spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China
and also found in Japan, Korea, Laos, and Russia,
Korean mint grows wild on slopes and roadsides.

It is cultivated throughout China and
gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Korean mint contains a volatile
oil, including methylchavicol, anethole, anisaldehyde,
and limonene.

History & Folklore Korean mint was first
mentioned in a Chinese medicinal text—Tao
Hongjing’s revision of the Divine Husbandman’s
Classic (Shen’nong bencaojing), which he wrote in
about 500 ce.

Agave americana (Agavaceae)

Agave,

Century Plant

Description Succulent perennial with large
rosette of 30-60 fleshy, sharply toothed leaves
that reach a height of 6/4 ft (2 m). After 10 years
or more, clusters of yellow flowers, growing to
234 in (7 cm) across, bloom on a pole-like stem
26-30 ft (8-9 m) tall.

Habitat & Cultivation Agave is native to
deserts of Central America. It is now grown as an
ornamental plant in tropical and subtropical areas
around the world.

Part Used Sap.

Constituents Agave sap contains estrogen-like
isoflavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, and vitamins
pro-A, B h B 2 , C, D, and K.

History & Folklore Unlike Europeans at
the time of the Spanish conquest of America,
the Aztec and Maya people were skilled in
wound healing. They used agave sap (often
with egg white) to bind powders and gums in
pastes or poultices to be applied to wounds.

The badianus Manuscript (1552 ce), which was
the first herbal text to list the plants of the New
World, describes an Aztec treatment for diarrhea
and dysentery, in which agave juice, combined
with freshly ground maize (Zea mays, p. 154) and
extract of bladderwort (Utricularia species), is
given as an enema, using a syringe made from the
bladder of a small animal and a hollow bone or
reed. Both tequila and mescal, popular Mexican
alcoholic drinks, are distilled from the fermented
sap or juice of agaves.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Demulcent,
laxative, and antiseptic, agave sap is a soothing and
restorative remedy for many digestive ailments.

It is used to treat ulcers and inflammatory
conditions affecting the stomach and intestines,
protecting these parts from infection and
irritation and encouraging healing. Agave has
also been employed to treat many
other conditions, including
constipation, jaundice, liver
disease, and tuberculosis.
Related Species Agave is a
fairly close relative of aloe (Aloe vera,
p. 60). The two plants have similar medicinal uses.
The sisal agave (A. sisalana) is cultivated in sub¬
tropical America and in Kenya as a source of
hecogenin, the substance that is the starting
point in the production of corticosteroids
(steroid hormones).

Cautions Do not use during pregnancy. Do
not exceed the dose as this may cause digestive
irritation and eventual liver damage. External use
may cause skin irritation.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

A G R I M 0 N I A EUPATORIA

Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae)

Agrimony

Description Erect, downy, and slightly
aromatic perennial growing to 3 ft (I m). Has
paired leaves, green above and silvery-green
beneath, and small 5-petaled yellow flowers
growing on terminal spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Agrimony is a native
European herb commonly found in marshes, wet
meadows, and open areas. It is harvested when in
flower in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Agrimony contains tannins,
coumarins, flavonoids (including luteolin, a volatile
oil), and polysaccharides.

History & Folklore The species name
Eupatoria has regal associations. Mithridates Eupator
(d. 63 bce), King of Pontus in northern Turkey, was
said to have had a profound knowledge of plant
lore and antidotes to poisons.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Agrimony has
long been used by herbalists to heal wounds
because it staunches bleeding and encourages
clot formation. An astringent and mild bitter,
it is also a helpful remedy for diarrhea and
a gentle tonic for digestion as a whole.

Combined with other herbs such as cornsilk
(Zea mays, p. 154), it is a valuable remedy for

cystitis and urinary incontinence, and has also been
used for kidney stones, sore throats, hoarseness,
rheumatism, and osteoarthritis.

Research Agrimony’s blood-staunching and
anti-inflammatory properties have been established
by experiments in China.

Related Species Xian he cao (A pilosa )
is used in China for comparable conditions.
Self-help Uses Diarrhea, p. 307;

Diarrhea in children, p. 3 18.

Agropyron repens syn.

Elymus repens (Graminaceae)

Couch Grass

Description Vigorous perennial growing to
32 in (80 cm). Has a long, creeping rhizome,
slender leaves, and erect spikes bearing green
flowers aligned in two rows.

Habitat & Cultivation Found in Europe,
the Americas, northern Asia, and Australia, couch
grass is an invasive weed. It is harvested
throughout the year.

Parts Used Rhizome, seeds, root.
Constituents Couch grass contains
polysaccharides (such astriticin), a volatile oil
(mainly agropyrene), mucilage, and nutrients.
Agropyrene has antibiotic properties.

History & Folklore In classical times, both
Dioscorides (40-90 ce) and Pliny (23-79 ce)
recommended couch grass root for poor urine
flow and kidney stones. In 1597, the herbalist
John Gerard wrote that “Couch-grasse be an
unwelcome guest to fields and gardens, yet his
physicke virtues do recompense those hurts; for
it openeth the stoppings of the liver and reins
[ureters] without heat.” In times of famine, the
root has been roasted and ground as a substitute
for coffee and flour.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A gentle, effective
diuretic and demulcent, couch grass is most
commonly used for urinary tract infections such as
cystitis and urethritis. It both protects the urinary
tubules against infection and irritants, and increases
the volume of urine, thereby diluting it. It can be
taken, usually with other herbs, to help treat kidney
stones, reducing the irritation and laceration they
cause. Couch grass is also thought to dissolve kidney
stones (insofar as this is possible), and in any case will
help to prevent their further enlargement. Both an
enlarged prostate and prostatitis (infection of the
prostate gland) will benefit from a couch grass
decoction taken over the course of several months.
In German herbal medicine, heated couch grass
seeds are used in a hot and moist pack that is
applied to the abdomen for peptic ulcers. Juice from
the roots of couch grass has been advocated for
treating jaundice and other liver complaints.

Ailanthus altissima syn.

A. glandulosa (Simaroubaceae)

Tree of Heaven,

Chun Pi

Description Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m). Has large leaves with up to 12 lance¬
shaped leaflets, and small greenish-yellow flowers.
It has an unpleasant odor.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China and
India, tree of heaven is now naturalized in some
parts of Europe, Australia, and North America.

It is cultivated as a garden tree. The bark and
root bark are harvested in spring.

Tree of heaven has an unpleasant, bitter taste.

Parts Used Bark, root bark.

Constituents The bark contains quassinoids
(such as ailanthone and quassin), alkaloids,
flavonols, and tannins. Quassinoids are intensely
bitter, antimalarial, and act against cancerous cells.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese
herbal medicine, tree of heaven is used to
treat diarrhea and dysentery, especially if there
is blood in the stool. The bark of the tree has
been used in Asian and Australian medicine to
counter worms, excessive vaginal discharge,
gonorrhea, and malaria, and it has also been
given for asthma. Tree of heaven has marked
antispasmodic properties and acts on the body
as a cardiac depressant.

Research Chinese researchers gave tree of
heaven to 82 patients with acute dysentery, and
cured 8 I. Abdominal pain generally eased within
2 days. The anti-cancer properties of quassinoids
are being extensively investigated. Laboratory
research indicates that the whole plant has a
marked antimalarial activity.

ALCHEMILLA VULGARIS

Related Species A. molobrica is used in herbal
medicine in Southeast Asia for its tonic properties
and to reduce fever.

O Caution Use tree of heaven only under
professional supervision.

Ajuga reptans (Lamiaceae)

Bugle

Description Low-growing, creeping perennial
up to I ft (30 cm) in height. Has rooting runners,
erect hairy stems, oblong to oval leaves, and
purplish-blue flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
North Africa, and parts of Asia, bugle has become
naturalized in North America. It prefers damp
woods and grassy and mountainous areas, and is
usually gathered when in flower in early summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Bugle contains iridoid glycosides,
diterpene bitters, phytoecdysone, and caffeic acids.

History & Folklore In the European tradition,
bugle has long been valued as a wound-healing
herb. Nicholas Culpeper praised it in 1652: “The
decoction of the leaves and flowers made in wine
and taken, dissolveth the congealed blood in those
that are bruised inwardly by a fall or otherwise, and
is very effectual for any inward wounds, thrusts or
stabs into the body or bowels.” The herbalist Mrs.
Grieve, writing in 1931, reported that it lowers the
pulse rate and “equalizes the circulation.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Bugle is bitter,
astringent, and aromatic, but opinion varies as to its
value as a medicine. It has mild analgesic properties,
and it is still used occasionally as a wound healer.

It is also mildly laxative and traditionally has been
thought to help cleanse the liver.

Related Species Ground pine (A. chamoepitys)
is used to treat gout and rheumatism. It is believed
to have diuretic, menstruation-inducing, and
stimulant properties. A. decumbens is used in
Chinese medicine as an analgesic.

Bugle was once
thought to be a
remedy for hangovers.

Albizzia lebbeck (Fabaceae)

Albizzia,

Siris Tree, Pit Shirish

Description Deciduous tree growing to
65 ft (20 m). Has compound leaves, white
fragrant flowers, and long, shiny, pale yellow
seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian
subcontinent, albizzia grows in moist teak-bearing
forests. It is also cultivated.

Parts Used Stem bark; also flowers and seeds.
Constituents Albizzia contains saponins, cardiac
glycosides, tannins, and flavonoids.

History & Folklore Albizzia has been used for
several thousand years within Ayurvedic medicine
to treat allergies, skin eruptions, glandular
disorders, and poisoning.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Albizzia bark
has anti-allergenic properties and is used orally
(and topically) to relieve problems such as
eczema, hives, hay fever, and asthma. The herb

helps to lower cholesterol and may be
useful as part of a broad approach to
treating abnormal fat levels in the
blood. It is usually taken as a decoction
or tincture. In Ayurveda, the bark is
given for pitta (fire) and kapha (water)
conditions such as asthma; the flowers
for coughs and bronchitis; and the seeds
for skin diseases.

Research Laboratory research has shown that
the plant helps to reduce allergic sensitivity, and
one clinical study has indicated potential value in
the treatment of asthma. In another clinical
study, weeping eczema improved significantly with

a topical application of albizzia. Extracts of the
plant also have antifungal and antibacterial activity.
Saponins from the seed pods have spermicidal and
antiprotozoal activity.

Alchemilla vulgaris (Rosaceae)

Lady’s Mantle

Description Herbaceous perennial growing to
I ft (30 cm). Has a basal rosette of lobed leaves
and insignificant green flowers 'A-A in (3-5 mm)
across in loose clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Lady’s mantle is
native to Britain and continental Europe. It is
gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Lady’s mantle contains tannins,
a glycoside, and salicylic acid.

| Lady’s mantle is chiefly
I used to reduce heavy
f menstrual bleeding.

History & Folklore Andres de Laguna’s
translation (1570) of Dioscorides’ Materia A/led/co
recommends two preparations of lady’s mantle—
the root, powdered and mixed with red wine,
for internal and external wounds, and an infusion
of the aerial parts, for “greenstick” fractures
and broken bones in babies and young
children. When taken regularly for 15 days,
lady’s mantle was said to reverse sterility due
to “slipperiness” of the womb. The plant’s
astringent effect is sufficiently marked that
the infusion was used to contract the female
genitalia, and it was “a thousand times sold”
to those wishing to appear to be virgins!
Medicinal Actions & Uses Lady’s mantle
has always been prized as a wound healer. Its
astringency ensures that blood flow is staunched
and the first stage of healing soon gets under
way. As the name implies, it is a valuable herb
for women’s complaints and is thought to have a
progesterogenic action. It is commonly taken to
reduce heavy menstrual bleeding, to relieve
menstrual cramps, and to aid menstrual regularity.
Lady’s mantle is also prescribed for fibroids and
endometriosis. It has been used to facilitate
childbirth, and is thought to act as a liver

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

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ALETRIS FARINOSA

164

decongestant. Its astringent properties make it
a useful herb for the treatment of diarrhea
and gastroenteritis.

Research Russian research indicates that lady’s
mantle reduces blood viscosity.

Caution Do not use lady’s mantle when pregnant.

Aletris farinosa (Liliaceae)

Star Grass,

True Unicorn Root,

Colic Root

Description Perennial growing to 3 ft (I m).
Has a flowering stem, smooth lance-shaped leaves,
and white bell-shaped flowers that appear to be
covered with frost.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
North America, star grass grows mainly in swamps
and wet sandy woodland, especially near the
seashore. It is harvested commercially in Virginia,
Tennessee, and North Carolina.

Parts Used Rhizome, leaves.

Constituents Star grass contains steroidal
saponins based on diosgenin, as well as a bitter
principle, volatile oil, and a resin.

History & Folklore The Native North
American Catawba used a cold-water infusion of
star grass leaves for stomachache. Star grass was
also advocated for snake bite.

Medicinal Actions & Uses It is
difficult to gain a clear picture of star
grass’s medicinal value. Due to its
estrogenic action, it is employed chiefly
for gynecological problems, particularly
at menopause. It is also given for period
pain and irregular periods. Some
authorities hold that it prevents
threatened miscarriage. Star grass is also a
good digestive herb, proving beneficial in
treating loss of appetite, indigestion, flatulence,
and bloating.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. The dried, and especially the fresh,
rhizome can be toxic when taken in overdose,
causing colic, diarrhea, and vomiting.

Allium cepa (Liliaceae)

Onion

Description Bulbous perennial growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has hollow stems and leaves, and white or
purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
northern hemisphere, onion has been cultivated
in the Middle East for millennia. It is now grown
worldwide as a vegetable.

Part Used Bulb.

Constituents Onion contains a volatile oil
with sulphur-containing compounds such as
allicin (an antibiotic) and alliin, flavonoids,
phenolic acids, and sterols.

History & Folklore Authorities throughout
the ancient world recommended onion for a
variety of health problems. Bunches were hung
on doors to ward off the plague in medieval
Europe. Wild onion (A. sibiricum ) was also used
extensively by Native North Americans to treat
stings and help relieve colds.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Onion boasts a
long list of medicinal actions—diuretic, antibiotic,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, expectorant, and
antirheumatic. It is also beneficial to the circulation.
Onions are taken the world over for colds, flu, and
coughs, much like garlic (A. sativum, p. 59). Onion
offsets tendencies to angina, arteriosclerosis, and
heart attack. It is also useful in preventing oral
infection and tooth decay. The warmed juice can
be dropped into the ear for earache, and baked
onion is used as a poultice to drain pus from sores.
Onion has a longstanding reputation as an
aphrodisiac, and it is also used cosmetically
to stimulate hair growth.

Onion juice is mixed
with honey os o
remedy for colds.

Related Species In Chinese herbal medicine, the
scallion (A. fistulosum) is given to encourage sweating,
to unblock the nose, and to relieve bloating. It is
also used to help drain boils and abscesses.

Self-help Use Mild fever, p. 3 I I.

Allium ursinum (Liliaceae)

Ramsons

Description Bulbous perennial smelling strongly
of garlic, growing to I I in (28 cm). Has a triangular
stem and broad elliptical leaves. Clusters of white,
star-like flowers grow from a common stem.
Habitat & Cultivation Ramsons are native
to Europe and Asia. They carpet shady sites in
damp woods and by streams. The plants are
gathered in early summer.

Parts Used Bulb, aerial parts.

Constituents Ramsons contain volatile oil,
aldehydes, vinyl sulfide, and vitamin C.

History & Folklore Ramsons (and many other
onion-like plants) have been highly regarded as
preventative medicines, as an old English rhyme
attests: “Eat leeks in Lide and ramsons in May/And
all the year after physicians may play!” More
prosaically, Gerard (1597) wrote that the leaves
“maye very well be eaten in April and Maie with
butter [by those of] a strong constitution.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Used mainly as
a folk remedy and as a food, ramsons are similar
to garlic (A. sativum, p. 59) but weaker in
action. They lower high blood pressure and
help to prevent arteriosclerosis. As ramsons
ease stomach pain and are tonic to the
digestion, they have been used for diarrhea, colic,
gas, indigestion, and loss of appetite. The whole
herb is used in an infusion against threadworms,
either ingested or given as an enema. Ramsons are
also thought to be beneficial for asthma, bronchitis,
and emphysema. The juice is used as an aid to
weight loss.

Alnus glutinosa

syn. A. rotundifolia (Betulaceae)

Alder

Description Small tree with fissured bark,
growing to 65 ft (20 m). Has notched oval leaves
and male and female catkins.

Habitat & Cultivation Alder is native to
Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It thrives in damp
places and along riverbanks. The bark and leaves
are gathered in spring.

Parts Used Bark, leaves.

Constituents Alder contains lignans, tannin
(10-20%), emodin (an anthraquinone), and glycosides.

AMARANTHUS HYPOCHONDRIACUS

History & Folklore Water-resistant, alder
was used in the construction of Venice. Wooster
Beech (1794-1868), founder of the Eclectic
healing movement, used a decoction of the bark to
“purify the blood.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Alder is most
often used as a mouthwash and gargle for tooth,
gum, and throat problems. The drying action of
a decoction of the bark helps to contract the
mucous membranes and reduce inflammation.

A decoction may also be used to staunch internal
or external bleeding, and to heal wounds. It is also
used as a wash for scabies. In Spain, alder leaves
are smoothed and placed on the soles of the feet
to relieve aching. Leaves are used to help reduce
breast engorgement in nursing mothers.

Alstonia spp. (Apocynaceae)

Fever Bark

Description Evergreen trees growing to 49 ft
(15 m). Have glossy oblong leaves and creamy-
white, star-shaped flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation A. constricta is native
to Australia, and A. scholoris to Australia and
Southeast Asia. Both are now found in tropical
regions around the world.

Parts Used Stem bark, root bark.
Constituents The bark of both species contains
indole alkaloids. A. constricta contains reserpine,
a powerful hypotensive.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Fever bark has
been taken to treat malarial fever (and has been
called Australian quinine), but its efficacy against
malaria remains unclear. The bark is antispasmodic
and lowers blood pressure, and is now used mainly
to reduce high blood pressure. Strongly bitter, the
bark is also taken to treat diarrhea.

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Fever bark is toxic in large doses.

The herb is subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

Althaea officinalis (Malvaceae)

Marshmallow

Description Downy perennial growing to 7 ft
(2.2 m). Has thick white roots, heart-shaped leaves,
and pink flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
marshmallow is naturalized in the Americas. It
prefers marshy fields and tidal zones and is
cultivated for medicinal use. The aerial parts are
gathered in summer as the plant begins to flower
and the root is unearthed in autumn.

Parts Used Root, leaves, flowers.

Constituents Marshmallow root contains about
37% starch, I \ % mucilage, I \% pectin, flavonoids,
phenolic acids, sucrose, and asparagine.

History & Folklore The philosopher
Theophrastus (c. 372-286 bce) reported that
marshmallow root was taken in sweet wine for
coughs. Marshmallow was once a key ingredient
in the sweets of the same name.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Useful
whenever a soothing effect is needed,
marshmallow protects and soothes the mucous
membranes. The root counters excess stomach
acid, peptic ulceration, and gastritis. Marshmallow
is also mildly laxative and beneficial for many
intestinal problems, including regional ileitis,
colitis, diverticulitis, and irritable bowel syndrome.
The leaves treat cystitis and frequent urination.
Marshmallow’s demulcent qualities bring relief
to dry coughs, bronchial asthma, chronic
bronchitis, and pleurisy. The flowers are applied
to help soothe inflamed skin. The root is used
in an ointment for boils and abscesses, and in
a mouthwash for inflammation. The peeled root
may be given as a chewstickto teething babies.
Other Species Hollyhock (A. rosea ) and
common mallow (Malva sylvestris, p. 232) are
used in a similar fashion.

Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with mucus,
p. 300; Earache due to chronic mucus, p. 3 12;
Urinary infections, p. 3 14.

Amaranthus hypochondriacus
(Amaranthaceae)

Amaranth

Description Sturdy, upright annual growing
to about 3 ft (I m). Has deeply veined, lance¬
shaped, purple-green leaves that grow to 6 in
(15 cm) and tufts of small, deep crimson flowers
on long spikes.

Amaranth’s long-lasting flowers gave rise to its name,
meaning “unwithering” in Greek.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India,
amaranth grows wild in many countries, including
the U.S. A common garden plant, it is harvested
when in flower in late summer and early autumn.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Amaranth contains tannins,
including a red pigment used to dye foods
and medicines.

History & Folklore Amaranth comes from
the Greek word meaning “unwithering.” The
amaranth was sacred to the goddess Artemis,
worshipped at Ephesus, and was thought to have
special healing powers. As a symbol of immortality,
it was used to decorate tombs and images of
the gods.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Amaranth is an
astringent herb that is used primarily to reduce
blood loss and to treat diarrhea. A decoction of
amaranth is taken as a remedy in cases of heavy
menstrual bleeding, excessive vaginal discharge,
diarrhea, and dysentery. It is also used as a gargle to
soothe inflammation of the pharynx and to hasten
the healing of canker sores.

Related Species Quinoa (A. caudatus, also
known as Inca wheat) is a nutritious Andean grain.
It is used to make bread and is eaten in salads. The
seeds of A. grandiflorus are used as a foodstuff by
Australian Aborigines.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

A M Ml M AJ U S

Ammi majus (Apiaceae)

Bishop’s Weed

Description Erect annual herb growing to
32 in (80 cm), with tangled leaflets and umbels
of small white flowers.

Bishop’s weed, like most members of the carrot family,
has highly aromatic seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Bishop’s weed is
native to the Mediterranean region and as far
east as Iran. It is cultivated for its seeds, which
are harvested in late summer.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents The seeds contain
furanocoumarins (including bergapten), flavonoids,
and tannins.

History & Folklore Bishop’s weed has
been grown as a medicinal plant since the Middle
Ages, but has been less often used than visnaga
(A. visnaga, p. 62).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Bishop’s weed
produces strongly aromatic seeds. In an infusion
or as a tincture, they calm the digestive system.
They are also diuretic, and, like visnaga, have been
used to treat asthma and angina. Bishop’s weed
reputedly helps treat patchy skin pigmentation
in vitiligo. It has also been used for psoriasis.
Cautions Bishop’s weed increases sensitivity
to sunlight and can provoke sunburn and sunlight-
related allergic reactions. Side effects can include
nausea, vomiting, and headaches. It is subject to
legal restrictions in some countries.

Anacardium occidentale
(Anacardiaceae)

Cashew

166

Description Evergreen tree growing to a height
of 49 ft (15 m). Has large oval leaves and pink-
streaked yellow flowers on long spikes. Its greenish-
grey “fruit” or “apple” is in fact a thickened stem.

The true fruit hangs just below this stem and
contains the nut, which is encased in red or
yellow flesh.

Habitat & Cultivation This tree is native to
tropical American forests and grasslands. It is now
cultivated for its highly prized nuts throughout the
tropics, especially in India and eastern Africa.
Parts Used Nuts, leaves, bark, root, gum.
Constituents The gum contains anacardic acid,
which is bactericidal and fungicidal, and kills worms
and protozoa.

History & Folklore The “apple” is made into
jams, and, in Brazil, into a liquor called cajuado.

The gum exuded by the stem wards off ants
and other insects.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though many
parts of the plant are used medicinally, cashew nut
is chiefly a food—after removal of its toxic lining.
The nut is highly nutritious, containing 45% fat and
20% protein. The leaves are used in Indian and
African herbal medicine for toothache and gum
problems, and in West Africa for malaria. The
bark is used in Ayurvedic medicine to detoxify
snake bite. The roots are purgative. The gum is
applied externally for skin conditions such as corns
and fungal infection. The oil between the outer
and inner shells of the nut is caustic and causes an
inflammatory reaction even in small doses. In
folk medicine in the tropics, the oil is used very
sparingly to eliminate warts, corns, ringworm,
and ulcers.

Research Research at the University of Berkeley
(California) has shown anacardic acids to have
significant antibacterial activity against Heliobacter
pylori, the bacterium thought to be the main cause
of stomach ulcers.

Caution The shell oil and its vapor are highly
irritant—do not use in any form.

Anacyclus pyrethrum
(Asteracea e)

Pellitory

Description Perennial herb growing to I ft
(30 cm). Has smooth alternate leaves and large
white flowers with yellow centers.

Habitat & Cultivation Pellitory is native to
the Mediterranean region as far east as the Middle
East. It is cultivated in Algeria, and the root is
unearthed in autumn.

Parts Used Root, essential oil.

Constituents Pellitory contains anacycline,
inulin, and volatile oil.

History & Folklore The herbalist Nicholas
Culpeper wrote in 1652 that pellitory “purgeth
the brain of phlegmatic humours... easing pains
in the head and teeth,” It has been listed in the
British Pharmacopoeia and was used in the form

of lozenges to relieve dryness of the mouth. It
was also taken to help ease neuralgia and paralysis
of the tongue or lips.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pellitory root
is taken as a decoction or chewed to relieve
toothache and increase saliva production. The
decoction may also be used as a gargle to soothe
sore throats. In Ayurvedic medicine, pellitory root
is considered tonic and is used to treat paralysis
and epilepsy. Diluted pellitory essential oil is used
in mouthwashes and to treat toothache.
Caution Do not take the oil internally except
under professional supervision.

Anagallis arvensis (Primulaceae)

Scarlet Pimpernel

Description Creeping annual growing to
2 in (5 cm) with oval- to lance-shaped leaves
and salmon-red flowers on long stems.

Habitat & Cultivation Scarlet pimpernel
is found in Europe and in temperate regions
generally. It prefers open areas and untended sandy
ground, and is gathered in summer toward the end
of its flowering period.

Scarlet pimpernel

was called “poor
man’s weather
glass” because
its flowers close
before rain.

ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents The herb contains saponins
(including anagalline), tannins, and cucurbitacins.
The latter are cytotoxic (damaging to cells).
History & Folklore Classical Greek writers
believed scarlet pimpernel helped melancholy.

In her Modem Herbal (1931), Mrs. Grieve quotes
an old saying: “No heart can think, no tongue
can tel I/The virtues of the pimpernel.” It has
been employed in European folk medicine as
a treatment for gallstones, liver cirrhosis, lung
problems, kidney stones, urinary infections, gout,
and rheumatism. This pattern of use suggests a
detoxifying action for the plant.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Little used by
medical herbalists today, scarlet pimpernel has
diuretic, sweat-inducing, and expectorant
properties. As an expectorant, it was used to
stimulate the coughing up of mucus and help
recovery from colds and flu. It has been used to
treat epilepsy and mental problems for 2,000 years,
but there is little evidence to support its efficacy.
Caution Scarlet pimpernel is not recommended
for medicinal use for more than 2-3 weeks.

Anamirta cocculus
(Menispermaceae)

Indian Berry,

Cocculus

Description Large, woody climbing plant
with alternate oval leaves and long hanging
clusters of greenish flowers. Has male and
female flowers on separate plants. Bears
red-brown kidney-shaped fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Indian berry is found
in forests in Southeast Asia from India and Sri
Lanka across to Indonesia.

Parts Used Leaves, fruit.

Constituents Indian berry contains picrotoxin
(up to 5%) and alkaloids. Picrotoxin is a very
powerful poison and nerve stimulant.

History & Folklore The fruit is used as a fish
poison. Scattered in the water, it stupefies fish in the
surrounding area, causing them to float to the surface,
Medicinal Actions & Uses Indian berry fruit
is sold commercially as a remedy for parasites.

The plant is so toxic that it is rarely taken internally.

It is mainly applied externally to kill parasites
such as lice. In Ayurvedic medicine, Indian berry
fruit is classified as astringent, antifungal, and
anthelmintic (de-worming), and is used for skin
ulcers and fungal conditions such as ringworm.

The herb is used in homeopathic medicine as
a remedy for heart conditions.

© ©Cautions Indian berry is highly toxic. Do
not take internally. Use externally only under
professional supervision.

Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae)

Pineapple

Description Herbaceous perennial
growing to 3 ft (I m). Has a short, sturdy
stem; spiny, lance-shaped leaves; and succulent
reddish-yellow fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Pineapple is native
to South America. It is cultivated throughout the
tropics for its fruit and, to a lesser extent, its
leaf fiber.

Parts Used Lruit, leaves.

Constituents Pineapple fruit contains bromelain,
a protein-splitting enzyme that aids digestion. It has
significant levels of vitamins A and C.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The sour,
unripe fruit improves digestion, increases
appetite, and relieves dyspepsia. In Indian herbal
medicine, it is thought to act as a uterine tonic.

The ripe fruit cools and soothes, and is used
to settle gas and reduce excessive gastric acid. Its
significant fiber content makes it useful in relieving
constipation. The juice of the ripe

Pineapple contains
an enzyme,
bromelain, that
, acts as an aid
. to digestion.

fruit is both a digestive tonic and a diuretic.
The leaves are considered to be useful in
encouraging the onset of menstrual periods
and easing painful ones.

Andrographis paniculata
(Acanthaceae)

Andrographis,

Green Chiretta,

Kiratatiktah (Sanskrit)

Description Upright, branched annual,
growing to 3 ft (90 cm), with lance-shaped leaves,
spotted, pale brown or purple flowers, and long,
thin seed capsules containing numerous yellow-
brown seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Andrographis grows
throughout India, on plains, and as undergrowth in
forests. It is commonly cultivated for medicinal use
in northern India and China, and is also grown as
a garden plant.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Contains bitter diterpene
lactones, diterpene glucosides, and flavonoids.
History & Folklore In Ayurveda, andrographis
is used mainly for the liver, to treat infection, and
for intestinal worms. In the past it has been used
chiefly to treat malaria.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A classically bitter
and tonic herb, andrographis exerts a wide range
of protective effects on the body—mostly through
its ability to stimulate the immune system,
especially macrophages, and to protect the liver
from damage, whether by infection or poisoning.
Like most bitters, it will help to counter fever. In
China, andrographis is used to treat a wide range
of infections including bacillary dysentery and
enteritis. It may be taken for chronic infection,
and in any situation where the immune system
is underperforming. Although it has no antiviral
activity, andrographis can speed up recovery
from the common cold.

Research In mostly Indian and Chinese
research, the herb has been shown to stimulate
the immune system, particularly helping to protect
against poisoning (such as from snake bite).
The glucosides are strongly antioxidant, and
extracts of the whole herb have demonstrated an
effect similar to, or better than, silymarin (from
Silybum marianum, p. 137) in supporting the
function of the liver. Thai research published in
1991 indicated that 6 g per day of andrographis
was as effective as acetaminophen in relieving fever
and sore throat. The herb also has reported
effectiveness against fertility.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. High
doses may cause nausea and vomiting.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

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ANEMARRHENA ASPH0DEL0 IDES

Anemarrhena asphodeloides
(Liliaceae)

Zhi Mu

Description Perennial herb with a thick
rhizome, thin leaves up to 28 in (70 cm) long, and
clusters of small white or light purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern
China, zhi mu grows wild on exposed slopes and
hills. It is cultivated in the northern and north¬
eastern provinces.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Contains steroidal saponins,
lignans, phenolic compounds, and xanthones.
History & Folklore Zhi mu is first mentioned
in the I st-century ce herbal, the Divine Husbandman’s
Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Zhi mu has a
bitter taste and a “cold” temperament and is
used in Chinese herbal medicine for “excess
heat”—fever, night sweats, and coughs. It has
been shown to have significant antibacterial
activity and is commonly used to treat sores
and mouth ulcers.

Anemone pulsatilla syn. Pulsatilla
vulgaris (Ranunculaceae)

Pulsatilla

Description Hairy perennial growing to
6 in (15 cm). Has feathery leaves, and large,
purple-blue, bell-shaped flowers, with bright
yellow anthers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
this herb thrives in dry grassland in central
and northern parts of the continent, preferring
chalky soil. The aerial parts are harvested when
it flowers in spring.

Parts Used Dried aerial parts.

Constituents Pulsatilla contains the lactone
protoanemonin (which on drying forms anemonin),
triterpenoid saponins, tannins, and volatile oil.
History & Folklore In Greek mythology, the
goddess Flora was jealous of her husband’s
attentions to the nymph Anemone and so
transformed her into a flower, at the mercy of the
North Wind. Anemone literally means “daughter
of the wind” in Greek. The alternate name
“pasque flower” derives from the French name
for Easter, when the plant is often in flower.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Pulsatilla
is less commonly used now in herbal medicine than
in the past, though it is still considered a valuable

; remedy for cramping pain, menstrual problems,
and emotional distress. It is considered a specific
treatment for spasmodic pain of the reproductive
I 68 system, both male and female, and is given quite

frequently for premenstrual syndrome and period
pain, especially when these are accompanied by
nervous exhaustion. In France, it has traditionally
been used for treating coughs and as a sedative
for sleep difficulties. Pulsatilla is also used to treat
eye problems such as cataracts. The fresh plant
is not used because it is strongly irritant. Pulsatilla
is one of the most commonly used of all
homeopathic remedies.

Related Species The meadow anemone
(A. pratensis) is used interchangeably with pasque
flower; wood anemone (A. nemorosa) is now
rarely used in herbal medicine.

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Do not take the fresh plant, which is toxic.

Anethum graveolens syn.
Peucedanum graveolens
(Apiaceae)

Dill

Description Aromatic annual that grows to a
height of 30 in (75 cm). Has an erect hollow stem,
feathery leaves, and numerous yellow flowers in
umbels. Fruit is very lightweight and pungent.

Habitat & Cultivation Dill is native to
southern Europe and central and southern
Asia, growing wild in open areas. It is also widely
cultivated, notably in England, Germany, and
North America. The leaves are picked as a
culinary herb. The seeds are harvested in
late summer.

Parts Used Seeds, essential oil, leaves.
Constituents Dill seeds contain up to 5% volatile
oil (about half of which is alpha-phellandrene),
flavonoids, coumarins, xanthones, and triterpenes.
History & Folklore An ancient Egyptian
remedy in the Ebers papyrus (c. 1500 bce)
recommends dill as one of the ingredients in a
pain-killing mixture. The ancient Greeks are
believed to have covered their eyes with fronds
of the herb to induce sleep. Dill was commonly
used as a charm against witchcraft in the Middle
Ages, when it was burned to clear thunderclouds.
Its name comes from the Norse dylla —meaning
“to soothe.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Dill has always
been considered a remedy for the stomach,
relieving gas and calming digestion. Dill’s essential
oil relieves intestinal spasms and cramps and helps
to settle colic, hence it is often used in gripe water
mixtures. Chewing the seeds improves bad breath.
Dill makes a useful addition to cough, cold, and flu
remedies, and is a mild diuretic. Like caraway
(Carum carvi, p. 184), it can be used with
antispasmodics, such as cramp bark (Viburnum
opulus, p. 150), to relieve period pain.

Dill increases milk production, and when taken
regularly by nursing mothers, helps to prevent
colic in their babies.

Caution Take the essential

oil internally only under

Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae)

Angelica

Description Aromatic biennial herb growing
to 61T ft (2 m). Has ridged upright hollow stems,
large bright green leaves, and greenish-white
flowers in umbels.

Habitat & Cultivation Angelica grows in
temperate regions in western Europe, Siberia, and
the Himalayas. It prefers damp sites and is often
found near running water. Leaves and stems are
harvested in early summer, seeds as they ripen in
late summer, and roots in late autumn after one
year’s growth.

Parts Used Root, leaves, stems, seeds.

ANTHRISCUS CEREFOLIUM

Constituents Angelica root contains a volatile
oil (consisting mainly of beta-phellandrene),
lactones, and coumarins. An extract of the root
has been shown to be anti-inflammatory
History & Folklore The British Flora Medica
(1877) reports that “the Laplanders considered
this plant as one of the most important
productions of the soil ... They are subject to
a severe kind of colic, against which the root
of angelica is one of their chief remedies.” The
stems are candied for culinary use.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Angelica is a
warming and tonic remedy, having a role to play
in a wide range of illnesses. All parts of the plant
will help relieve indigestion, gas, and colic. Angelica
can also be useful in cases of poor circulation, as it
improves blood flow to the peripheral parts of the
body. It is considered a specific treatment for
Buerger’s disease, a condition that narrows the
arteries of the hands and feet. By improving blood
flow and stimulating the coughing up of phlegm,
angelica’s warm, tonic properties bring relief from
bronchitis and debilitating conditions affecting the
chest. For respiratory conditions, the roots are
most commonly used, but the stems and seeds
may be employed as well.

Caution Do not take as a medicine during
pregnancy. Do not confuse with Chinese Angelica.
Self-help Use Stomach spasm, p. 305.

Angelica dahurica (Apiaceae)

Bai Zhi

Description Aromatic perennial growing
to 8 ft (2.5 m). Has a hollow stem, large
3-branched leaves, and umbels bearing many
white flower heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Grows wild in thickets
in China, Japan, Korea, and Russia. Cultivated mainly
in central and eastern regions of China.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Bai zhi contains a volatile oil
and the coumarins imperatorin, marmesin,
and phellopterin.

History & Folklore Bai zhi is first mentioned
in Chinese herbal medicine in the Divine
Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing) of
the I st century ce. The famous military physician
Zhang Congzheng (I 150-1228) classified bai zhi
as a sweat-inducing herb able to counter harmful
external influences on the skin, such as cold, heat,
dampness, and dryness.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The pungent,
bitter bai zhi is used for headaches and aching eyes,
nasal congestion, and toothache. Like its cousins
angelica (A. archangelica , see preceding entry ) and
dong quai (A. sinensis, p. 63), it is warming and
tonic, and it is still given for problems attributed

to “damp and cold” conditions, such as sores,
boils, and ulcers affecting the skin. Bai zhi also
appears to be valuable in treating the facial pain
of trigeminal neuralgia.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Custard Apple

Description Tree growing to 33 ft (10 m). Has
oblong- to lance-shaped leaves, greenish flowers,
and segmented green fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
America and the Caribbean, this herb is cultivated
throughout the tropics.

Parts Used Leaves, bark, fruit, seeds.
Constituents Custard apple contains fruit
sugars and mucilage.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In the West
Indies, the young shoots are used with peppermint
(Mentha x piperita, p. 114) to relieve colds and
chills. In Cuban medicine, the leaves are taken to
reduce uric acid levels. The leaves, bark, and unripe
fruit are all strongly astringent and are used to
treat diarrhea and dysentery. The crushed seeds
are mixed with an inert powder and employed as
an insecticide.

Research Custard apple has been shown to
have antiprotozoal and anthelmintic (worm-
repelling) activity.

Anthemis cotula (Lamiaceae)

Mayweed,

Stinking Mayweed

Description Annual or perennial resembling
German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita, p. 77).

Has slightly hairy stems and large solitary daisy-type
flowers. As the name stinking mayweed suggests,
this plant has an unpleasant smell and taste.
Habitat & Cultivation This herb commonly
grows wild in Europe, the Americas, Australia,

New Zealand, and Siberia. The flowers and leaves
are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Flowers, leaves.

Constituents Mayweed contains sesquiterpene
lactones (including anthecotulide).

History & Folklore In his Irish Herbal of
1735, the herbalist K’Eogh states that mayweed
is “good for women with the falling down of the
womb, if they but wash their feet with a
decoction of it.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Although it looks
similar to German chamomile, mayweed is far less
effective as a medicine. It has been used as an
antispasmodic and to induce menstruation, and

was traditionally employed for supposedly
hysterical conditions relating to the uterus.
Cautions The whole plant can cause blistering
if applied fresh to the skin. Do not take during
pregnancy or if breastfeeding.

Description Annual herb growing to 2 ft
(60 cm). Has finely grooved stems, opposite leaves,
and many small white flowers arranged in
compound umbels.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
Asia Minor, Iran, and the Caucasus, chervil grows
freely in open areas. It is cultivated throughout
the world. The herb is gathered when in flower
in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Chervil contains a volatile oil,
coumarins, and flavonoids.

Anthriscus cerefolium (Apiaceae)

Chervil

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

A P H A N E S A RV E N SIS

History & Folklore A basket of chervil seeds
was one of the items found in Tutankhamun’s tomb.
The herb is traditionally used as a “spring tonic” in
central Europe. Chervil is aromatic and is used
extensively in cooking.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Chervil is a good
remedy for settling the digestion. It is also used to
“purify the blood” and to help lower blood
pressure, as well as being considered a diuretic.

Juice from the fresh plant is applied to various skin
conditions, including wounds, eczema, and abscesses.

encourages sweating, is stimulant, and detoxifying.

It is taken for rheumatism, asthma, and coughs.
Applied externally as a poultice, the herb is used
to treat a number of different skin conditions,
including eczema.

Related Species Wild sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis)
is a North American relative used medicinally
in much the same way as American spikenard.

The leaves and stalks of two East Asian Aralia,

A. chinensis and A. cordata, are eaten as vegetables.
Cautions Do not take during pregnancy.

Aphanes arvensis (Rosaceae)

Parsley Piert

Description Prostrate, hairy annual growing to
4 in (10 cm). Has small wedge-shaped leaves and
tiny green flowers in tufts.

Habitat & Cultivation Parsley piert is native
to Europe, North Africa, and North America. It
grows to an altitude of 1,600 ft (500 m), thriving
in dry sites, including the top of walls. The herb is
harvested when in flower in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Parsley piert contains tannins.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Astringent,
diuretic, and demulcent, parsley piert is used to
treat kidney and bladder problems, especially kidney
stones. It is also frequently used in the treatment
of bladder stones (gravel), which cause pain and
irritation and obstruct urine flow. Best taken in an
infusion, the herb is also a useful remedy for cystitis
and recurrent urinary infections.

Arbutus unedo (Ericaceae)

Strawberry Tree

Description Evergreen shrub growing to 20 ft
(6 m). Has an upright stem with reddish bark,
leathery serrated leaves, white or pink bell¬
shaped flowers, and round warty red fruit
resembling strawberries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
Mediterranean coasts, strawberry tree also grows
in western Ireland, Australia, and Africa. The leaves
are gathered in late summer and the fruit in autumn.
Parts Used Leaves, fruit.

Constituents Strawberry tree contains up
to 2.7% arbutin, methylarbutin, and other
hydroquinones, a bitter principle, and tannins.
Arbutin is powerfully antiseptic in the urinary system.
History & Folklore The fruit of strawberry
tree is used in preserves, but it is not palatable
fresh. The Latin unedo comes from un ede, meaning
“[only] one I eat.”

Aralia racemosa (Araliaceae)

American Spikenard

Description Aromatic perennial bush growing
to 614 ft (2 m). Has thick fleshy roots, large
leathery leaves, small greenish-white flowers, and
red or purple berries.

Habitat & Cultivation American spikenard
is native to North America. The root is unearthed
in summer or autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents American spikenard contains a
volatile oil, tannins, and diterpene acids.

History & Folklore The Cherokee made a
tea for backache from American spikenard, and
the cure was later adopted by New World settlers.
The Shawnee used it for flatulence, coughs,
asthma, and breast pain; the Menominee as a cure
for blood poisoning. The plant was included in the
US National Formulary from 191 6 to 1965.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Many of
American spikenard’s current uses come directly
from Native American precedents. The herb

Medicinal Actions & Uses Strawberry tree
is valued as an astringent and antiseptic herb. Its
antiseptic action within the urinary tract makes it
a useful remedy for treating cystitis and urethritis.
Strawberry tree’s astringent effect has been put to
use in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery.
Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or if
suffering from kidney disease.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Ericaceae)

Uva-ursi,

Bearberry

Description Low-lying evergreen shrub growing
to 20 in (50 cm). Has long trailing stems, dark green
leaves that are glossy on the upper side, bell-shaped
pink flowers, and small glossy red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Uva-ursi is native to
Europe, and naturalized throughout the northern
hemisphere up to the Arctic. It grows in damp
conditions in undergrowth, heathland, and
grassland. The leaves are gathered in autumn.
Parts Used Leaves, berries.

Constituents The leaves of uva-ursi contain
hydroquinones (mainly arbutin, up to 17%), tannins
(up to 15%), phenolic glycosides, and flavonoids.
Arbutin and other hydroquinones have an
antiseptic effect in the urinary tract.

History & Folklore The name uva-ursi means
“bear’s grape” in Latin. Bears are fond of the fruit.
The plant is first documented in The Physicians of
Myddfai, a 13th-century Welsh herbal text.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Uva-ursi is one of
the best natural urinary antiseptics. It has been used
extensively in herbal medicine to disinfect and astringe
the urinary tract in cases of acute and chronic cystitis
and urethritis. However, it is not a suitable remedy if
there is a simultaneous infection of the kidneys.
Research Experiments have shown that uva-ursi
extracts have an antibacterial effect. This action is
thought to be stronger in alkaline urine—-thus the
efficacy of uva-ursi is likely to increase if it is taken
in combination with a vegetable-based diet.
Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or with
kidney disease. Unsuitable for children under 12.

It is generally advisable to take uva-ursi for no
more than 7-10 days at a time.

Arenaria rubra (Carophyllaceae)

Sandwort,

Sand Spurrey

Description Herbaceous, low-growing, sticky,
and hairy annual. Has small thin leaves and pale
pink flowers growing to 14 in (6 mm) across.

ARMORACIA RUSTICANA

Habitat & Cultivation Found in the wild
throughout Europe, Asia, and Australia, sandwort
thrives in sandy and gravelly places, especially close
to the sea.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Sandwort is a
diuretic herb that is thought to relax the muscle
walls of the urinary tubules and bladder. Sandwort
is most commonly taken in the form of an infusion
to treat kidney stones, acute and chronic cystitis,
and other conditions of the bladder.

Related Species Seabeach sandwort
(A. peploides), a closely related northern plant,
is eaten by the Inuit of Alaska as a fresh, pickled,
or oil-preserved vegetable. In Iceland, this plant
is fermented and eaten in the same way as
sauerkraut. Rupturewort (Herniaria glabra, p. 219),
which is a European plant, has medicinal properties
that are similar to those of sandwort.

Argemone mexicana
(Papaveraceae)

Mexican Poppy,

Chicalote

Description Prickly annual growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has spiny white-veined leaves and large
yellow flowers with delicate petals.

Habitat & Cultivation Mexican poppy grows
in tropical regions from the southernmost U.S. to
South America. It favors dry soil and is often found
in tobacco fields.

Parts Used Aerial parts, latex, seeds.
Constituents Mexican poppy contains
isoquinoline alkaloids similar to those in the opium
poppy ( Papaver somniferum, p. 244).

History & Folklore Like most poppies, this
plant exudes a milky latex, which was traditionally
used in Ecuador to treat cataracts.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Commonly used
through much of Latin America, the whole plant
acts as a mild painkiller and sedative, and is taken

Mexican poppy flowers have expectorant properties
and are useful for treating coughs.

to relieve muscle ache, toothache, and neuralgic
pain. The fresh latex contains protein-dissolving
properties and is traditionally applied to warts
and cold sores. The flowers and seeds are mildly
expectorant and can be used to treat irritable
coughs and asthma.

Related Species In Hawaii, the latex of A. glauca
is also used to treat warts.

O Cautions Excessive use can cause glaucoma.
Use only under professional supervision.

Arisaema spp. (Araceae)

Tian Nan Xing

Description Perennial herb growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has star-shaped leaves and purple-white
or green pitcher-like bracts.

Habitat & Cultivation Tian nan xing grows
wild in eastern Asia, especially in China, where it
is widely cultivated. The rhizome is unearthed in
autumn or winter.

Part Used Dried rhizome.

Constituents Tian nan xing contains
triterpenoid saponins and benzoic acid.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese herbal
medicine, tian nan xing is thought to encourage the
coughing up of phlegm. The dried rhizome is used
principally for chest problems. When prescribed
internally it is always combined with fresh ginger
root ( Zingiber officinale, p. 155). The fresh rhizome
is only ever used externally, for ulcers and other
skin conditions.

Related Species Jack-in-the-pulpit or Indian
turnip (A. triphyllum), a North American species,
is a treatment for chest conditions.

© O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. The fresh rhizome is very toxic;
use only the dried rhizome internally.

Aristolochia dematitis
(Aristolochiaceae)

Birthwort

Description Unpleasant-smelling perennial with
heart-shaped leaves and tubular yellow flowers
with flattened lips.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to central
and southern Europe, birthwort is also found in
southwestern Asia. The root is unearthed in
spring or autumn.

Parts Used Root, aerial parts.

Constituents Birthwort contains aristolochic
acids, a volatile oil, and tannins. While stimulating
white blood cell activity, aristolochic acid is
carcinogenic and toxic to the kidneys (see Research ).
History & Folklore Aristolochia means
“excellent birth,” and refers to the traditional use

of the fresh juice to induce labor. Theophrastus
(c. 372-286 bce) records that the plant was used
to treat disorders of the uterus, reptile bites, and
sores on the head.

Medicinal Actions & Uses No longer in use
today and banned in Europe and North America,
birthwort was formerly used to treat wounds,
sores, and snake bite. It has been taken after
childbirth to prevent infection and is also a potent
menstruation-inducing herb and a (very dangerous)
abortifacient. A decoction was taken to encourage
healing of ulcers. Birthwort has also been used for
asthma and bronchitis.

Research Birthwort illustrates the fact that though
a plant is natural, this has no bearing on its safety.
Aristolochic acid (present within birthwort) is a
kidney toxin that induces kidney failure and cancer
within the kidneys and urinary tract. However, the
slow rate of development of symptoms has meant
that in the past no connection was made between
these kidney symptoms and the herb. These toxic
effects apply to birthwort and all Aristolochia species
that contain aristolochic acid. Kidney failure and
death from aristolochic acid is relatively rare in the
West but is “reaching potentially epidemic
proportions in the East,” according to research
published in Taiwan in 2013. Many species of
Aristolochia continue to be used in Oriental herbal
medicine in countries such as China, Japan, and
Taiwan. All species of Aristolochia are banned in
most Western countries.

© Caution Under no circumstance use
birthwort or any Aristolochia species as medicines.

Armorada rusticana syn.
Colchlearia armorada
(Brassicaceae)

FHorseradish

Description Perennial with a deep tap root,
leaves up to 20 in (50 cm) long, and clusters of
4-petaled white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
western Asia, this herb is widely cultivated for its
root, unearthed in autumn.

Parts Used Root, leaves.

Constituents Horseradish root contains
glucosilinates (mainly sinigrin), flavonoids,
asparagine, resin, and vitamin C. On being crushed,
sinigrin produces allyl isothiocyanate, an antibiotic
substance. The flavonoids have been shown to
be antioxidant.

History & Folklore Pliny (23-79 ce) probably
had horseradish in mind when describing a plant
that warded off scorpions, but for most of its long
history, horseradish has been used mainly as a
diuretic herb. It is a popular condiment, particularly
in Britain and central Europe.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

ARNICA MONTANA

Medicinal Actions & Uses Now undervalued
as a medicinal herb, horseradish has many healing
properties. It strongly stimulates digestion,
increasing gastric secretions and appetite. It is
a good diuretic and promotes perspiration,
making it useful in fevers, colds, and flu. It is also
expectorant and mildly antibiotic, and can be of
use in both respiratory and urinary tract infections.
A sandwich of freshly grated root is a home
remedy for hay fever. Externally, a poultice of the
root can soothe chilblains.

Cautions Over-consumption of horseradish
may irritate the gastrointestinal tract. The
plant should be avoided by those with low
thyroid function. A horseradish poultice may
cause blistering.

Arnica montana (Asteraceae)

Arnica

172

Description Aromatic perennial growing to
I ft (30 cm). Has downy egg-shaped leaves and
bright yellow daisy-like flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Arnica grows in
mountain woods and pastures in central
Europe, the Pyrenees, Siberia, Canada, and the
northwestern U.S. Its flowers are harvested
when in full bloom; the rhizomes after the
plant has died back in autumn.

Parts Used Flowers, rhizome.

Constituents Arnica contains sesquiterpene
lactones, flavonoids, a volatile oil that includes
thymol, mucilage, and polysaccharides.

History & Folklore Arnica has been used
extensively in European folk medicine. Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), the German
philosopher and poet, drank arnica tea to ease his
angina in old age.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Best known as
an effective ointment and compress for bruises,
sprains, and muscle pain, arnica improves the local
blood supply and accelerates healing. It is anti¬
inflammatory and increases the rate of reabsorption
of internal bleeding. Generally the plant is now
taken internally only at a homeopathic dilution,
principally for shock, injury, and pain. If taken as a
decoction or tincture, it stimulates the circulation
and is valuable in the treatment of angina and a
weak or failing heart, but it can be toxic even at
low dosage and thus is rarely used in this way.
Related Species In North America A. fulgens
is used.

© ©Cautions Do not take internally. Do not
apply arnica preparations to broken skin. External
use may cause dermatitis. Arnica is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Self-help Uses Bruises, p. 304; Sprains, p. 3 12;
Tired & aching muscles, p. 3 12.

Artemisia abrotanum (Asteraceae)

Southernwood

Description Strongly aromatic, shrubby
perennial, growing to 3 ft (I m). Has woody stems,
feathery silver-green leaves, and yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe, this herb is rare in the wild but is cultivated
for the perfume industry and, to a lesser extent,
for herbal medicine. The aerial parts are harvested
in late summer.

Southernwood leaves were traditionally placed among
clothing to repel moths.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Southernwood contains a volatile
oil, abrotanin, and tannins.

History & Folklore Much prized during the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance, southernwood
is now used infrequently in herbal medicine.

The closely related wormwood (A. absinthium,
p. 66) is considered superior. Like wormwood,
southernwood contains a strong volatile oil that
repels insects, and the leaves are placed among
clothes to repel moths. Mrs. Grieve (A Modem
Herbal , 1931) reportsthat in England “even in
the early part of the last century a bunch of
southernwood and rue [Ruta graveolens, p. 265]
was placed next to the prisoner in the dock as
a preventive from the contagion of jail fever.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Southernwood is
a bitter tonic. It strengthens and supports digestive
function by increasing secretions in the stomach
and intestines. An infusion of southernwood has
been given to children as a treatment for worms,
but this is not recommended without professional
supervision. Like other Artemisias, southernwood
stimulates menstruation and is commonly
taken to encourage the onset of irregular or
absent periods.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy.
Not suitable for children under 12 unless
prescribed professionally.

Artemisia capillaris (Asteraceae)

Yin Chen EHao

Description Medium-sized perennial herb with
an erect stem, thin feathery leaves, and clusters of
small composite flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Southeast
Asia, yin chen hao is cultivated in China and other
Far Eastern countries. The young plants are
gathered in spring.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Yin chen hao contains a volatile
oil and coumarins. The volatile oil is antifungal.
History & Folklore Yin chen hao has been
used in Chinese herbal medicine for more than
2,000 years. Its medicinal properties were first
listed in Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen'nong
bencaojing), written in the I st century ce.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Yin chen hao
is an effective remedy for liver problems, being
specifically helpful for treating hepatitis with jaundice.
Traditional Chinese medicine (see pp. 40-43) holds
that it is bitter and cooling, clearing “damp heat”
from the liver and gall ducts and relieving fevers.

Yin chen hao is also anti-inflammatory and diuretic.
It was formerly applied in the form of a plaster to
treat headaches.

Research Investigation undertaken in China
indicates that like many Artemisia species, yin chen
hao has a tonic and strengthening effect on the
liver, gallbladder, and digestive system.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy.
Unsuitable for children under 12 unless
prescribed professionally.

Artemisia cina (Asteraceae)

Levant Wormwood

Description Shrubby perennial with long thin
leaves and tiny round tufts of flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native
to the region stretching from the eastern
Mediterranean to Siberia. The unopened flower
heads are gathered from wild and cultivated plants.
Parts Used Flower heads.

Constituents Levant wormwood contains
santonin (a sesquiterpene lactone), artemisin, and
a volatile oil (with up to 80% cineole). Santonin
is directly toxic to roundworms and, to a lesser
extent, threadworms.

History & Folklore Levant wormwood was
known to the classical Greek world as a remedy
for intestinal worms, and it has been used for this

ASCLEPIAS TUBER0SA

purpose ever since. Its active constituent, santonin,
was first isolated in 1830, and is now more
commonly employed than the plant itself.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Used almost
exclusively to expel worms, Levant wormwood
is strongly bitter and aromatic and has atonic
and stimulant effect on digestion. The dried flower
heads are occasionally mixed with honey to
disguise their bitterness.

O Cautions q q not take during pregnancy. Use
only under professional supervision, especially in
the case of children under 12.

History & Folklore Tarragon is widely used
as an herb in cooking. In French, it is sometimes
known as herbe ou dragon, because of its reputed
ability to cure serpent bites.

Medicinal Actions & Uses While tarragon
stimulates digestion, it is reputed to be a mild
sedative and has been taken to aid sleep. With its
mild menstruation-inducing properties, it is taken
if periods are delayed. The root has traditionally
been applied to aching teeth.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. Do
not exceed the standard dose, and do not take
for longer than 4 weeks at a time.

term at a low dose to improve appetite, digestive
function, and absorption of nutrients. In addition,
it can be taken to encourage the elimination of
worms. Mugwort also increases bile flow and
mildly induces the onset of menstruation. The
European conception of mugwort as a uterine
stimulant is contradicted by Chinese usage, in
which it is prescribed to prevent miscarriage
and to reduce or stop menstrual bleeding.
Mugwort is also antiseptic, and has been used
in the treatment of malaria.

Caution Do not take mugwort during pregnancy.

Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae)

Tarragon

Description Aromatic perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has narrow lance-shaped leaves
and small greenish flower heads in long
drooping clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Russia,
western Asia, and the Himalayas, tarragon is now
cultivated as a culinary herb in gardens around the
world. The aerial parts are picked in summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Tarragon contains tannins,
coumarins, and flavonoids, and up to 0.8% volatile
oil, consisting of up to 70% methylchervicol, which
is toxic and potentially carcinogenic.

Artemisia vulgaris (Asteraceae)

Mugwort

Description Shrubby perennial growing to
about 3 ft (I m). Has dark green deeply indented
leaves and numerous clusters of small reddish or
yellow flower heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Mugwort is found in
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It
flourishes in open areas and along roads, and is
gathered in late summer just before flowering.
Parts Used Leaves, root.

Constituents Mugwort contains a volatile oil
(mainly caryophyllene), a sesquiterpene lactone,
flavonoids, coumarin derivatives, and triterpenes.
History & Folklore Known as Mater
Herbarum (mother of herbs), mugwort was used
from the earliest times in Europe and Asia. Roman
centurions reputedly placed it in their sandals to
keep the soles of their feet in good shape. The
Greek physician Dioscorides (I st century ce)
recounts that the goddess Artemis (who inspired
the plant’s genus name) was believed to give
succor to women in childbirth. The 13th-century
Welsh herbal The Physicians of Myddfai recommends:
“If a woman be unable to give birth to her child
let the mugwort be bound to her left thigh. Let
it be instantly removed when she has been
delivered, lest there should be hemorrhage.”

An 18th-century Spanish herbalist, Diego de
Torres, recommends the application of a mugwort
plaster below the navel as an effective method
of inducing labor. In the Isle of Man (UK), sprigs
of mugwort are worn at the annual open-air
parliamentary assembly, held on Tynwald Hill. In
China, mugwort has been valued for millennia.

It is the principal ingredient of moxa and is used
in moxibustion, a process in which heat from
a burning, cigar-shaped roll of chopped leaves
is applied to acupuncture points.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A digestive
and tonic herb, mugwort has a wide variety of
traditional uses. Milder in action than most other
Artemisia species, it can be taken over the long

Asclepias tuberosa
(Asclepiadaceae)

Pleurisy Root

Description Perennial, upright herb growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has narrow lance-shaped leaves
and spikes of numerous 5-petaled orange or
yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation This
herb is native to the southern U.S.

The root is unearthed in spring.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Pleurisy root
contains cardenolides and
flavonoids. It is estrogenic.

History & Folklore In
North American herbal
medicine, pleurisy root
was considered a cure-all.

It was used to treat
conditions as diverse as
pleurisy, typhoid, pneumonia,
congestion, dysentery, colic,
eczema, and hysteria. The
Omaha ate the raw root for
bronchitis and other chest
conditions. Many tribes
thought pleurisy root was
a good remedy for hot
dry fevers.

Medicinal Actions
& Uses Though its most
specific usage is relieving the
pain and inflammation
of pleurisy, pleurisy root has
other applications. It is useful
for hot, dry, and tight conditions
in the chest. It promotes the
coughing up of phlegm,
reduces inflammation,
and, in addition,

Pleurisy root was used
by Native Americans
as a chest remedy.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

ASPALATHUS LINEARIS

helps reduce fevers by stimulating perspiration.
The root is also taken for the treatment of chronic
diarrhea and dysentery
Related Species A. incornoto and A. syriaca
have both been used in Native American herbal
medicine to treat asthma.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy.
Excessive doses may cause vomiting.

Aspalathus linearis (Fabaceae)

Rooibos,

Red Bush

Description Variable shrub growing to 6'A ft (2
m) in height, with green, needle-like leaves, yellow,
pea-like flowers, and small seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
South Africa, rooibos is now widely cultivated as
a commercial crop, particularly in the Cedarberg
mountain area. The seed is hard to germinate
and must first be scarified. The young leaves are
harvested once a year; chopped, and left to “sweat”
or ferment before being dried.

Parts Used Young leaves.

Constituents Rooibos contains polyphenols,
including flavonoids, with a low tannin content.
History & Folklore Rooibos was first used as
an appetizing tea by the Khoisan people, indigenous
to the Cedarberg region, but also as a sleep aid and
for headaches.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Drunk mostly
as a pleasant tasting, caffeine-free drink, rooibos,
like green tea, has significant antioxidant activity.
There is evidence to suggest that the fermented
leaves exert a protective effect on the heart and
circulation. In view of the herb’s traditional use, it
might also prove helpful as a nighttime drink to
promote sound sleep.

174

Asparagus officinalis (Liliaceae)

Asparagus

Description Slender-stemmed perennial
growing to 614 ft (2 m). Has long fronds of
delicate needle-like leaves and bell-shaped
yellow-green flowers that produce small
bright red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to temperate
regions in Europe, North Africa, and Asia,
asparagus is cultivated worldwide as a vegetable.
The shoots grow into tender green (and, if
sheltered from sunlight, white) stems in spring. The
root is gathered after the shoots have been cut.
Parts Used Root, shoots.

Constituents Asparagus contains steroidal
glycosides (asparagosides), bitter glycosides,

asparagine, and flavonoids. Asparagine is a
strong diuretic.

History & Folklore To judge from ancient
Egyptian tomb drawings, asparagus was cultivated
as long ago as 4000 bce. In the I st century ce,
the Greek physician Dioscorides recommended a
decoction of asparagus root to improve urine flow
and to treat kidney problems, jaundice, and sciatica.

Asparagus is used to treat a range of urinary problems.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Asparagus is a
strong diuretic that is useful for a variety of urinary
problems, including cystitis. It is also useful for
rheumatic conditions, helping to “flush” waste
products accumulated in the joints out of the
body in the urine. Asparagus is also bitter, mildly
laxative, and sedative.

Caution Do not take if you suffer from
kidney disease.

Asparagus racemosus
(Liliaceae)

Shatavari,

Indian Asparagus

Description Slender perennial fern growing
to 23 ft (7 m) in height. Shatavari has fronds of
needle-like leaves, tiny white flowers, and purple-
black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Himalayas and the Indian subcontinent, shatavari
grows wild in gravelly soils up to 3,900 ft (1,200 m)
above sea level. It is also found in western China.
Part Used Root.

Constituents Shatavari contains steroidal
saponins, alkaloids, and mucilage.

History & Folklore Shatavari is known as the
“Queen of herbs” in Ayurvedic medicine. Its name
literally means “ 100 spouses,” signifying the herb’s
ability to act as a sexual tonic and promote fertility.
Medicinal Actions & Uses A key Ayurvedic
remedy, shatavari is first and foremost a women’s
herb, aiding fertility and promoting conception, and

acting as a general reproductive and sexual tonic.
Shatavari can prove particularly helpful in easing
menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes and poor
stamina. It appears to improve fertility in both men
and women, and may also be taken to treat
impotence. Atonic, strengthening herb, shatavari
supports immune function and has a place in the
treatment of immunosuppressed conditions.
Related Species Asparagus (A. officinalis, see
preceding entry ) is a relative.

Asperula odorata syn. Galium
odoratum (Rubiaceae)

Sweet Woodruff

Description Perennial growing to 18 in (45 cm).
Has a square stem, whorls of narrow elliptical
leaves, and small white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Sweet woodruff is
native to Europe, and is also found in Asia and North
Africa. It grows in woodlands and shaded places.
The herb is gathered when in flower in late spring.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Sweet woodruff contains iridoids,
coumarins (0.6%), tannins, anthraquinones, and
flavonoids. The flavonoids act on the circulation
and are diuretic.

History & Folklore When it dries, sweet
woodruff takes on the scent of newly cut grass,
and it has often been placed between clothes
to impart its aroma. In his Irish Herbal of 1735,
K’Eogh records that “It is good in healing wounds
if bruised and then applied, and also in curing boils
and inflammations.” In Germany Maiwein, made
of sweet woodruff steeped in white wine, is drunk
to celebrate May Day.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Sweet woodruff
is considered tonic, with significant diuretic and
anti-inflammatory effects. Its coumarin and flavonoid
constituents make it helpful for varicose veins and
phlebitis. It has been used as an antispasmodic, and
it is given to children and adults for insomnia.

Sweet woodruff aerial parts are dried for medicinal use.

BACOPA M 0 N NIE R I

Cautions In excessive doses, sweet woodruff
can cause internal bleeding. Do not use if taking
conventional medication for circulatory problems,
or during pregnancy

Aspidosperma quebracho-bianco
(Apocynaceae)

Quebracho

Description Tree growing to 100 ft (30 m).
Has thick corky bark, leathery leaves, and tubular
white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Quebracho is found
in the southern half of South America. The bark
and timber are used commercially.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Quebracho contains indole
alkaloids (including yohimbine) and tannins.

History & Folklore The name quebracho
comes from the Spanish quebrar (to break) and
hacha (axe), an allusion to the hardness of this
tree’s wood.

Medicinal Actions & Uses With its
antispasmodic effect on the bronchial tubes,
quebracho is used therapeutically to treat asthma
and emphysema. It is also atonic and reduces
fever. This herb is astringent and has been used
externally on wounds and burns.

Related Species Many other species of
Aspidosperma are grown for tanning and timber in
South America. Some are also considered fever
remedies. One, A. excelsum, is used to relieve gas,
stomach problems, and indigestion.

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Quebracho is toxic in excessive doses.
It is subject to legal restrictions in some countries.

Atractylodes macrocephala
(Asteraceae)

Bai Zhu

Description Erect perennial herb growing to
2 ft (60 cm). Has alternate oval- to lance-shaped
leaves and purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Bai zhu is rare in the
wild. It is cultivated in China, Japan, and Korea. The
rhizome is unearthed in late autumn or winter.
Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Bai zhu contains a volatile oil
(0.35-1.35%), which includes atractylol, and the
lactones atractylenolide II and III. Atractylol has
a liver-protective activity.

History & Folklore The first record of the
use of bai zhu is in the Tang Materia Medica, written
in China in 659 ce. Later, it was one of the 4 herbs
that made up the “decoction of the 4 rulers,” a

mixture prescribed by Wang Ji (1463-1539)
as a treatment for syphilis.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Bai zhu has

traditionally been used as atonic, building qi
(see p. 40) and strengthening the spleen. The
rhizome has a sweet, pungent taste, and is used
to relieve fluid retention, excessive sweating, and
digestive problems such as diarrhea and vomiting.
Combined with Baical skullcap ( Scutellaria baicalensis,
p. 134), it is employed to prevent miscarriage.

Avena sativa (Poaceae)

Oats

Description Annual grass growing to 3 ft (I m).
Has straight hollow stems, blade-like leaves, and
small spikes holding seeds (grain).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern
Europe, oats are now grown in temperate regions
worldwide as a cereal crop. They are harvested in
late summer.

Parts Used Seeds, straw (dried stems).
Constituents Oats contain saponins, alkaloids,
sterols, flavonoids, silicic acid, starch, proteins
(including gluten), vitamins (especially B vitamins),
and minerals (especially calcium).

History & Folklore Formerly, oat straw was
used to fill mattresses, proving beneficial to those
suffering from rheumatism. In The English Physitian
(1652) Nicholas Culpeper states that “a poultice
made of meal of oats and some oil of bay helpeth
the itch and the leprosy.” Earlier, in 1597, John
Gerard was less enthusiastic: “Oatmeal is good to
make a fair and well-coloured maid to look like a
cake of tallow.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Oats are best
known as a nutritious cereal, but they benefit health
in many other ways. Oat bran lowers cholesterol,
and an oat-based diet may improve stamina (see
Research). Oats, and oat straw in particular, are tonic
when taken medicinally. Oat straw is prescribed by
medical herbalists to treat general debility and a
wide variety of nervous conditions. The grains and
straw are mildly antidepressant, gently raising energy
levels and supporting an overstressed nervous
system. Oats are used to treat depression
and nervous debility, and insomnia in those
suffering from nervous exhaustion. Oats
are one of the principal herbal aids to
convalescence after a long illness. Externally,
the grain is emollient and cleansing, and a
decoction strained into a bath can help soothe
itchiness and eczema.

Research In research undertaken in
Australia, athletes who were placed on an oat-
based diet for 3 weeks showed a 4% increase
in stamina. Oats are thought to help maintain
muscle function during training and exercise.

Self-help Uses Depression & decreased
vitality, p. 3 16; Eczema, p. 300; Nervous
exhaustion & stress, p. 3 19; Poor sleep & nervous
exhaustion, p. 309.

Bacopa monnieri
(Scrophulariaceae)

Water Hyssop,

Brahmi (Elinai)

Description Creeping succulent perennial
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has spatula-shaped
fleshy leaves and pale blue or white flowers on
long, slender stalks.

Habitat & Cultivation Water hyssop grows
in warmer temperate and tropical climates,
especially in southern Asia. It thrives in marshland,
developing into dense mats on mudflats and at the
edges of mangrove swamps.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Water hyssop contains
triterpenoid saponins, including bacosides.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In India, water
hyssop is used principally for disorders of the
nervous system, such as neuralgia, epilepsy, and
mental illness, but it is also employed for a wide
range of other disorders, including indigestion,
ulcers, gas and constipation, asthma and bronchitis,
and infertility. In China, it is taken as a yang tonic for
impotence, premature ejaculation, infertility,
and rheumatic conditions. In Indonesia,
the plant is a remedy for filariasis
(a tropical disease caused by
worms). In Cuba, water hyssop
is used as a purgative,
and a decoction of the
whole plant is taken as
a diuretic and laxative.
The expressed juice is
mixed with oil and
applied as a rub for
arthritic pain.
Research
Indian research
suggests that water
r hyssop improves mental
function, memory, and
concentration, as well as
reduces learning time.

Water hyssop, a swamp
plant, may have a tonic
effect on the brain.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

B A L LO TA NIGRA

Ballota nigra (Lamiaceae)

Black Horehound

Description Straggling perennial growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has oval, toothed leaves and pink-purple
flowers in whorls at the base of the upper leaves.
Habitat & Cultivation This herb is found
throughout much of Europe, in North America,
and in Asia. It thrives in open areas, in pavement
cracks, and by roadsides, mostly near human
habitation. It is harvested when in flower in summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Black horehound contains
diterpenoids, including marrubiin, flavonoids,
tannins, saponins, and a volatile oil.

History & Folklore The Greek physician
Dioscorides, writing in the I st century ce,
recommends a plaster of black horehound leaves
and salt for dog bites. He also advocates a balm,
made from the dried leaves and honey, to purify
infected wounds and ulcers.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though long
considered a remedy for convulsions, low spirits,
and menopausal problems, black horehound is rarely
used today. Authorities differ over whether there is
any substance to claims for its earlier applications.
The herb is currently used by Anglo-American
herbalists as an antiemetic—preventing or reducing
nausea or vomiting. It is perhaps most useful when
nausea arises from disorders of the inner ear (such

as Meniere’s disease) as opposed to those of the
digestive system. Black horehound is thought to be
mildly sedative and antispasmodic, and is occasionally
taken for arthritis and gout.

Bambusa arundiaceae
(Poaceae)

Spiny Bamboo

Description Perennial tree, up to 100 ft (30 m),
with multiple stems from its base. Has narrow
pointed leaves and long loose clusters of yellow
to yellowish-green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout
tropical Asia, especially in India and China, spiny
bamboo thrives up to 6,900 ft (2,100 m) above
sea level.

Parts Used Root, leaves, sprouts.
Constituents Spiny bamboo juice contains
high levels of silica.

History & Folklore Spiny bamboo is arguably
the most useful plant on earth, being used to make
scaffolding, rafts, furniture, paper, and dozens of
other items. It also has an important role to play
in herbal medicine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Various parts of
spiny bamboo are used in Indian and Ayurvedic
medicine. The root is considered astringent and
cooling, and is used to treat joint pain and general
debility. The leaves are used to stimulate
menstruation, and, being antispasmodic, to help
relieve period pain. They are also taken to tone and
strengthen stomach function and to expel worms.
They are reputed to be aphrodisiac. The young
sprouts are eaten to relieve nausea, indigestion, and
gas, and a poultice of the sprouts is applied to help
drain wounds that have become infected. The juice is
rich in silica, and aids in the strengthening of cartilage
in conditions such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis.
Related Species In Chinese herbal medicine,
the juice and shavings of the black bamboo
(B. breviflora ) are prescribed to counter “excess
heat,” coughs, and a congested chest. Its roots are
used as a diuretic and to treat fevers.

Banisteriopsis caapi
(Malpighiaceae)

Ayahuasca

Description Woody vine growing to 100 ft
(30 m). Has smooth bark, oval leaves, and bunches
of small red or yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Ayahuasca is native
to jungles of the Amazon basin. It is cultivated by
indigenous peoples, but the wild herb is preferred
for medicinal use.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Ayahuasca contains beta-carboline
alkaloids (including harmine, harmaline, and delta-
tetrahycroharmine), which stimulate hallucinations.
History & Folklore In the Quechua language,
widely spoken in Peru and neighboring countries,
ayahuasca means “spirit of the dead,” indicating
the awesome powers traditionally attributed
to this plant. Another native Indian name is nixi
honi xuma, meaning “vine from which the vision
extract is made.” Ayahuasca bark, which is often
used in combination with members of the Datura
genus, is the primary hallucinogen among many
Amazonian tribes, being prepared as part of
complex ritual ceremonies.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though known
as a powerful hallucinogen, ayahuasca is also a
medicine, being used as a remedy to cure a range of
diagnosed conditions. However, ayahuasca is usually
taken by the healer rather than by the patient. In
the shamanistic societies of the Amazon, ayahuasca
allows the healer to communicate with the spirit
world where illness arises, interceding on behalf of
the ill person and the community to restore health
and harmony to all—quite unlike the individualized
approach of Western medicine. Beyond its ability
to affect mood, the bark is emetic and purgative.

At low doses it is used as a mild detoxifier.

© O Caution Ayahuasca is taken traditionally as
part of a rich, complex ritual which affects the
experience produced. Medicinal use of this plant
is not advised.

Baptisia tinctoria (Fabaceae)

Wild Indigo

Description Herbaceous perennial growing to
3 ft (I m). Has a smooth stem, clover-like leaves,
and purplish-blue flowers in small terminal clusters.

Wild indigo, a North American plant, was used by the
Penobscot to treat wounds.

B E R B E R I S VULGARIS

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern parts
of North America, wild indigo grows from North
Carolina to southern Canada in dry, hilly woods.
Parts Used Root, leaves.

Constituents Wild indigo contains isoflavones,
flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, and polysaccharides.
The isoflavones are estrogenic, while the
polysaccharides are immunostimulant.

History & Folklore Wild indigo was
commonly used as a poultice by Native Americans
and New World settlers to treat snake bite. The
Mahicans used a decoction of the root to bathe
cuts and wounds.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wild indigo is
a strong antiseptic and immunostimulant, though at
more than moderate doses it can produce nausea
and vomiting. It is considered particularly effective
for upper respiratory infections such as tonsillitis
and pharyngitis, and is also valuable in treating
infections of the chest, gastrointestinal tract, and
skin. Its antimicrobial and immunostimulant
properties combat lymphatic problems—when
used with detoxifying herbs such as burdock
(Arctium loppo, p. 65), it helps to reduce enlarged
lymph nodes. Wild indigo is frequently prescribed
along with echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92) for
chronic viral conditions or chronic fatigue
syndrome. A decoction of the root soothes sore
or infected nipples and infected skin conditions.
When used as a gargle or mouthwash, the
decoction treats canker sores, gum
infections, and sore throats.

O Caution Best taken on
professional advice.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese
herbal medicine, a decoction of wax gourd seeds
is used to “drain dampness” and “clear heat.” It is
given for chest conditions and vaginal discharge.

In combination with Chinese rhubarb (Rheum
palmatum, p. 126), it is prescribed for intestinal
abscesses. In Ayurvedic medicine, the seeds are
used to treat coughs, fever, and excessive thirst,
and to expel tapeworms. In an ancient Indian
recipe, the fruit juice is mixed with lime juice
(Citrus aurantiifolia) to prevent or stop bleeding.
Research The fruit appears to have a cancer¬
fighting effect.

8 erberis aquifolium, syn. Mahonia
aquifolium (Berberidaceae)

Oregon Grape

Benincasa hispida syn. 8. cerifa
(Cucurbitaceae)

Wax Gourd,

Petha

Description Hairy annual climber. Has 3-lobed
leaves, tendrils, and large yellow flowers. Produces
rounded fruit (gourds) about 16 in (40 cm) long.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
Asia and Africa, this herb is cultivated in India
and China as a vegetable. The fruit is harvested
in late summer.

Parts Used Fruit rind, fruit, seeds.
Constituents Wax gourd contains saponins
and guaridine.

History & Folklore

Wax gourd has been used

as a food and medicine i#

for thousands of years. It ^

was first documented in

the Tang Materia Medica,

written in 659 CE. Wax gourd

Description Evergreen shrub growing to 6 'A ft
(2 m). Has shiny leaves, clusters of small yellowish-
green flowers, and purple berries in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
North America, Oregon grape grows in the Rocky
Mountains up to 6,600 ft (2,000 m), and in woods
from Colorado to the Pacific coast. It is abundant
in Oregon and northern California.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Oregon grape contains
isoquinoline alkaloids (including berberine,
berbamine, and hydrastine) and other alkaloids
of aporphine-type. These alkaloids are strongly
antibacterial and are thought to reduce the severity
of psoriasis.

Oregon grape has

evergreen leaves, clusters
of small yellow flowers,
and purple berries.

History & Folklore Californian Native peoples
took a decoction or tincture of the bitter-tasting
root for loss of appetite and debility. In the 19th
and early 20th centuries, Oregon grape was an
important herb in the Physiomedicalist movement,
based on a combination of orthodox and Native
American practices. In this context, it was
prescribed as a detoxifier and tonic.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Oregon grape
is chiefly used for gastritis and general digestive
weakness, to stimulate gallbladder function, and to
reduce congestion problems (mainly of the gut). It
also treats eczema, psoriasis, acne, boils, and
herpes, and skin conditions linked to poor
gallbladder function.

Research Clinical use of extracts of Oregon
grape has been investigated in Germany, and there
is now evidence that the root can be effective in
relieving psoriasis. Extracts can be taken internally
and applied locally on the skin. The alkaloid
berberine is thought to prevent cell proliferation.
Related Species Barberry (B. vulgaris, see
following entry ) is similar to Oregon grape in its
overall action, but it is generally stronger in the
effect it produces.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae)

Barberry

Description Thorny deciduous shrub growing
to 10 ft (3 m), with leathery leaves, yellow flowers,
and red berries in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
barberry is naturalized in North America. It is
cultivated as a garden plant and medicinal herb.
The bark is gathered in spring or autumn, and the
berries in autumn.

Parts Used Stem bark, root bark, berries.
Constituents Barberry contains isoquinoline
alkaloids, including berberine and berbamine.
Berberine is strongly antibacterial and amoebicidal,
and stimulates bile secretion. Berbamine is strongly
antibacterial. Many of the alkaloids are thought to
be cancer-inhibiting.

History & Folklore In ancient Egypt,

Berberis berries were macerated with fennel
seed (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212) to make a
drink for fevers. The berries are extremely
sour but have been used in the past to make
preserves—the French confiture depine vinette
is one example.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Barberry acts
on the gallbladder to improve bile flow and
ameliorate conditions such as gallbladder pain,
gallstones, and jaundice. Its strongly antiseptic
property helps amoebic dysentery, cholera, and
other similar gastrointestinal infections. The bark is

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

BETA VULGARIS

Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae)

Red Beet, White Beet

Description Perennial with swollen edible red
or white root, upright shoots, large deep green
leaves tinged with red, and spikes of green-
petaled flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Sea beet (the wild
subspecies) is native to coastal regions of Europe,
North Africa, and Asia from Turkey to the East
Indies. Red beet is widely cultivated as a vegetable,
white beet as a vegetable and source of sugar.

Part Used Root.

Constituents White beet contains betaine,
which promotes liver regeneration and fat
metabolism. Red beet contains betanin (also
found in red wine), which is partly responsible
for its immune-enhancing effect, and inorganic
nitrate, which increases nitric oxide levels within
the body and thus lowers blood pressure.
History & Folklore The Materia Medica,
written by Dioscorides in the I st century ce,
recommends the following prescription for
clearing the head and relieving earache—mix beet
juice with honey and sniff it up the nose.
Medicinal Actions & Uses White beet
acts to support the liver, bile ducts, and

astringent, antidiarrheal, and healing to
the intestinal wall—in short, barberry
has a strong, highly beneficial effect on
the digestive system as a whole. Like
Oregon grape (8. aquifolium,
preceding entry ) and goldenseal
(Hydrastis canadensis, p. 105),
barberry helps chronic skin
conditions such as eczema and
psoriasis. The decoction makes
a gentle and effective wash for
the eyes, although it must be
diluted sufficiently before use.
Research Berberine has
been shown to have antibiotic
activity against cholera,
giardia, shigella, salmonella,
and E. coli.

O Cautions Take only
under professional
supervision. Do not
take during pregnancy.

gallbladder, influencing fat metabolism and
helping to lower blood fat levels. Several
clinical trials have shown that red beet juice
(due to its high nitrate content) relaxes
the arteries and lowers blood pressure
in people with high blood pressure. A
glass a day of juice will help to support
lower blood pressure. Red beet juice is also
thought to support immune function and is
prescribed by herbalists as part of a cancer-
treatment regime—though large quantities
must be taken (up to I quart a day) to
be effective.

Betula pendula syn. B. verrucosa
(Betulaceae)

Silver Birch

Description Handsome slender deciduous
tree growing to a height of 100 ft (30 m). Has
pale grey papery bark, toothed leaves, and catkins
in spring.

Habitat & Cultivation Silver birch is
common in Europe, in temperate regions of Asia,
and in North America. It flourishes in woods and
thickets, and is also planted as a garden ornamental.
The leaves are gathered in late spring.

Silver birch is widespread in temperate regions throughout
the northern hemisphere. Its leaf oil is used to improve
eczema and psoriasis.

Parts Used Leaves, bark, sap.

Constituents Silver birch contains saponins,
flavonoids, tannin, and a volatile oil that includes
methyl salicylate.

Barberry berries were
traditionally used in a
decoction to treat
peptic ulcers.

History & Folklore Silver birch has been
used as a medicinal herb in northern Europe and
Asia since the earliest times. Its name is thought
to derive from the Sanskrit word bhurga, meaning
“tree whose bark is used for writing on.’’ In the
highlands of Scotland, silver birch sap—tapped in
the spring—was drunk as a treatment for bladder
and kidney complaints.

Medicinal Actions & Uses An infusion
made with silver birch leaves hastens the removal
of waste products in the urine, and is beneficial
for kidney stones and bladder stones (gravel),
rheumatic conditions, and gout. The leaves are
also used, in combination with diuretic herbs, to
reduce fluid retention and swelling. Silver birch
sap is a mild diuretic. The oil distilled from the
leaves is antiseptic and is commonly used in
preparations to treat eczema and psoriasis.

A decoction of silver birch bark can be used as
a lotion for chronic skin problems. The bark can
also be macerated in oil and applied to joints for
the relief of rheumatism.

Related Species The Himalayan silver
birch (8. utilis ), a close relative, is used to
treat convulsions, dysentery, hemorrhages,
and skin diseases.

Bidens tripartita (Asteraceae)

Bur Marigold

Description Annual growing to a height
of 2 ft (60 cm). Has toothed lance-shaped
leaves, yellow button-like flower heads, and
burrlike fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Bur marigold
grows throughout Europe and in other
temperate regions, including Australia and
New Zealand. It is found in damp places and
near fresh water.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Bur marigold contains
flavonoids, xanthophylls, volatile oil, acetylenes,
sterols, and tannins.

History & Folklore The herbalist Nicholas
Culpeper, writing in 1652, extolled bur marigold:

“It helps the cachexia or evil disposition of the
body, the dropsy and yellow jaundice, it opens
obstructions of the liver, and mollifies the hardness
of the spleen being applied outwardly.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Little used in
medicine today, bur marigold is astringent and
diuretic, and employed to treat bladder and kidney
problems. It has a longstanding reputation for
staunching blood flow, and can be used for uterine
hemorrhage and conditions causing blood in the
urine. Bur marigold’s astringency is beneficial in
counteracting peptic ulceration, diarrhea, and
ulcerative colitis.

B 0 S W E L LI A S E R RATA

Bignonia catalpa syn. Catalpa
bignonioides (Bignoniaceae)

Catalpa

Description Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m). Has large oval leaves in whorls of 3, white
flowers in conical clusters, and long thin fruits
(bean pods).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
southeastern U.S., this tree is often planted in
gardens in southern and western Europe.

Parts Used Bark, fruit.

Constituents The bark contains catalpine,
and oxylenzoic and protocatechetic acids.
History & Folklore Catalpa bark was
formerly used as a substitute for quinine in
treating malaria.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The mildly
sedative and narcotic bark is used to treat
asthma, whooping cough, and other spasmodic
coughs in children. The distilled water of the
fruit, in combination with herbs commonly used
to treat eye problems, such as eyebright (Euphrasia
officinalis, p. 209) and rue (Ruta graveolens, p. 265),
makes an effective eyewash for conjunctivitis and
other eye infections.

© Caution Never use the roots, which are
highly poisonous.

Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)

Annatto

Description Evergreen tree growing to 26 ft
(8 m). Has large leaves, pink or white flowers, and
red fruit capsules containing red seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
forests in the Americas and the West Indies,
annatto is widely cultivated in similar climatic zones,
notably in India. Seeds are collected as the fruit
splits open.

Parts Used Seeds, leaves, root.

Constituents The seed pulp contains carotinoid
coloring principles.

History & Folklore In tropical South
America, the brilliant red pigment in the seed
pulp has traditionally been used in body painting.
Annatto dye is also used as a colorant for
margarine and cheese.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In the Caribbean,
annatto leaves and roots are used to make an
astringent infusion that is taken to treat fever,
epilepsy, and dysentery. The infusion is also taken
as an aphrodisiac. The leaves alone make an
infusion that is used as a gargle. The seed pulp
reduces the severity of blistering when applied
immediately to burns. Taken internally, the seed
pulp acts as a general antidote for poisoning.

Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae)

Borage

Description Hairy annual growing to 2 ft
(60 cm). Has a pulpy stem, large basal leaves, and
attractive blue flowers in summer.

Habitat & Cultivation Borage is a common
Mediterranean weed thought to originate from
southern Spain and Morocco. Often grown as a
garden herb, it is also extensively cultivated for its
seed oil.

Parts Used Aerial parts, flowers, seed oil.
Constituents Borage contains mucilage,
tannins, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which in
isolation are toxic to the liver. The seeds contain
up to 24% gamma-linolenic acid.

History & Folklore The herbalist John Gerard,
writing in 1597, extols borage’s virtues, ‘A syrup
made of the flowers of borage comforteth
the heart, purgeth melancholy, and quieteth
the phreneticke or lunaticke person.” Gerard
also quotes the old saying, “I, Borage, bring
always courage.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses With its high
mucilage content, borage is a demulcent herb
and soothes respiratory problems. Its emollient
qualities make it helpful for sore and inflamed
skin—prepared either as freshly squeezed juice,

in a poultice, or as an infusion. The flowers
encourage sweating and the leaves are diuretic.
The seed oil is particularly rich in polyunsaturated
fats, and is superior in this respect to evening
primrose oil (Oenothera biennis, p. 241). Borage
seed oil is used to treat premenstrual complaints,
rheumatic problems, eczema, and other chronic
skin conditions.

Cautions Due to the presence of toxic
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, there is uncertainty over
borage’s safety as a medicine. It is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries and should not be
taken internally. These restrictions and cautions
do not apply to borage seed oil.

Boswellia serrata (Burseraceae)

Boswellia,

Indian Olibanum,

Sallaki (Sanskrit)

Description Deciduous tree, growing to about
49 ft (15 m), with pale papery bark, compound
leaves, and clusters of small white flowers. The
gum resin exudes from the bark and is transparent
gold in color.

Habitat & Cultivation Boswellia grows in
dry, hilly regions of central and northern India.
Parts Used Gum resin, bark.

Constituents Boswellia contains triterpene

acids (including beta-boswellic acid), essential
oil, terpenols, monosaccharides, uronic
B acids, sterols, and tannins.

History & Folklore Boswellia,
a close relative of frankincense
(B. sacra), has been used for many thousands of
years as an astringent and anti-inflammatory.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Boswellia
makes an effective mouthwash and gargle, the
antiseptic and astringent resin helping to heal
and tighten inflamed mucous membranes. Sore
throat, laryngitis, canker sores, and gum disease
will all benefit. Boswellia is also markedly anti¬
inflammatory and antiarthritic. This makes it
potentially useful in chronic inflammatory diseases
such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis,
and psoriasis. C>ther conditions that may benefit
include gout, asthma, hay fever, and nettle rash.
Research Research into Boswellia is ongoing
and has expanded in recent years. Clinical trials
(mostly in India and Germany) indicate that
Boswellia counteracts inflammation in conditions
such as arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease.
The majority of trials noted that symptoms such
as pain, stiffness, and poor grip strength all
improved. There is increasing evidence that
Boswellia has marked pain-relieving activity, and
that it promotes stable blood glucose levels in
people with type 2 diabetes.

Borage's attractive blue
flowers are traditionally
used to decorate salads.

179

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS ^

6 RASSICA OLERACEA

Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)

Cabbage

Description Biennial or perennial herb growing
to 8 ft (2.5 m). Has a thick stem, grey leaves, and
4-petaled yellow flowers. Within the first year,
it produces a greatly enlarged terminal bud
that develops into the familiar cabbage head
in late summer.

Habitat & Cultivation Wild cabbage is
native to coasts of the English Channel and the
Mediterranean. Cultivated varieties are produced
worldwide as a vegetable.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Cabbage is rich in vitamins A, B,,
B 2 , and C.

History & Folklore The wholesome cabbage

is one of the oldest vegetables. According to Greek

myth, the plant sprang into existence from the

perspiration of Zeus. In a Greek ritual, cabbage was

given to expectant mothers shortly before birth in

orderto establish good breast-milk

production. The Romans used

cabbage as an antidote,

especially to alcohol, believing

it countered intoxication

and prevented or reduced a

hangover. They also used cabbage

leaves to cleanse infected wounds.

^ , It is thought to have been cultivated

Cabbage 6

in Britain from around 500 ce.

One traditional method of making a cabbage

poultice, still used today, is to cut out the thick

midrib of a leaf and iron it, placing it while still hot

on the area to be treated.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cabbage’s best-

known medicinal use is as a poultice—the leaves

of the wild or cultivated plant are blanched, crushed,

or chopped, and applied to swellings, tumors, and

painful joints. Wild cabbage leaves eaten raw or

cooked aid digestion and the breakdown of toxins

in the liver—so the Romans’ eating it to ease a

hangover was in fact quite justified. Cabbage is also

detoxifying and helpful in the long-term treatment

of arthritis. The high vitamin C content of cabbage

has made it useful in the prevention of scurvy.

Caution A cabbage poultice may cause blisters

if left on for several hours.

Bryonia dioica syn. B. cretica
subsp. dioica (Cucurbitaceae)

White Bryony

Description Perennial climbing vine with fleshy
taproot up to 6 in (15 cm) thick. Straggling stem
with tendrils, greenish flowers, and red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation White bryony is native

to southern England and parts of Europe. The root
is dug up in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents White bryony contains
cucurbitacins, glycosides, volatile oil, and tannins.
The cucurbitacins kill cells and so act on tumors.
History & Folklore From prehistory to
the Middle Ages, the thick roots of white bryony
were cut into a human shape as a substitute (or
a counterfeit) for mandrake root (Mandragora
officinarum, p. 232), which was believed to afford
magical protection. The Greek physician Dioscorides
(I st century ce) reports that the leaves, fruit, and
root of white bryony were applied to gangrenous
wounds. In medieval England, the plant was used to
treat leprosy.

White bryony has

antitumor and
antirheumatic
properties.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A powerful
cathartic and purgative, bryony is used with great
caution in herbal medicine today. It is principally
prescribed for painful rheumatic conditions. It may
be taken internally, or applied as a counterirritant,
causing swelling and increased blood flow to
the area. White bryony is also given for other
inflammatory conditions such as duodenal ulcers,
asthma, bronchitis, and pleurisy, and may be used
to reduce high blood pressure. The whole herb
has antiviral activity and research is now suggesting
that it acts as an adaptogen—helping the body to
adapt more effectively to stress and strain.

Related Species B. alba is used in homeopathic
medicine. Black bryony (Tamus communis ) is an
unrelated plant with approximately similar uses.
© ©Cautions Bryony is atoxic plant. Use
only under professional supervision. Do not take
during pregnancy.

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Palas,

Flame of the Forest,

Bengal Kino

Description Deciduous tree growing to 49 ft
(15 m). Has 3-lobed leaves and large orange-red
flowers in clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Palas is native to India
and Southeast Asia. It grows in forests and in open
areas to altitudes of 3,900 ft (1,200 m).

Parts Used Bark, flowers, leaves, gum, and seeds.
Constituents All parts of the tree except the
seeds contain tannins.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The gum that
oozes from incisions made in palas bark is known
as Bengal kino. Mildly astringent, it is used as a
substitute for the kino derived from bastard teak
(Pterocarpus marsupium). Bengal kino is taken as
a decoction or a tincture for acid indigestion,
diarrhea, and dysentery, and used as a gargle for
sore throats and as a douche for vaginitis. Early
research suggests that the leaves and bark have
the potential to treat diabetes, and that the leaves
exert a beneficial action on diarrhea.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Caesalpinia bonduc
(Caesalpiniaceae)

Nikkar Nut

Description Thorny bush growing to 30 ft (9 m),
with spiny compound leaves, yellow flowers in
dense clusters, and prickly pods containing yellow
seeds (nuts).

Habitat & Cultivation Nikkar nut is pan-
tropical, common in both tropical Asia and Africa.
Its seeds are gathered when ripe.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents The seeds contain isoflavonoids,
diterpenes, a bitter principle, and a fixed oil (20%)
rich in linoleic acid (68%).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Nikkar seeds are
used to treat fevers and are taken as a tonic and
aphrodisiac. In India, they are often mixed with
black pepper ( Piper nigrum, p. 250) for medicinal
use. The seeds are also taken for inflammatory
conditions such as arthritis. Roasted nikkar seeds
are used in the treatment of diabetes.

CAMELLIA SINENSIS

Related Species A decoction of the bark of
the Caribbean C. bahamensis is used for liver and
kidney infections, and a decoction of the wood
is used for diabetes. An infusion of the leaves of
C. pulcherrima (native to Asia and Africa) is taken
for liver problems and mouth ulcers.

Calamintha ascendens

syn. C. sylvatica, C. officinalis

(Lamiaceae)

Calamint

Description Mint-scented perennial growing
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has hairy oval leaves, and purple
flowers in late summer.

Habitat & Cultivation Calamint grows wild
in Europe and Asia from the British Isles eastward
to Iran, especially in the Mediterranean region. It
flourishes along roads and in dry places.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Calamint contains a volatile oil
(about 0.35%) consisting mainly of pulegone.
History & Folklore In classical legend, calamint
had the power to drive away the Basilisk, a serpent
credited with the ability to kill with its gaze
or breath.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Calamint stimulates
sweating, and hence helps lower fevers. It also settles
gas and indigestion. It is expectorant, and is a good
cough and cold remedy. This range of applications
makes it a good medicinal herb for mild respiratory
infections. It should preferably be mixed with other
herbs such as yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56) and
thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143).

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Calluna vulgaris (Ericaceae)

Heather,

Ling

Description Small, branched shrub growing
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has tiny leaves and white or pink
to pale-purple flowers growing on spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Heather grows in
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

It is found on heaths, moors, bogs, and in open
woods. The herb is gathered when in flower in
late summer.

Parts Used Flowering tips.

Constituents Heather contains flavonoids,
arbutin, tannin, and an alkaloid, ericodin. This
constituent has a strongly disinfectant effect
within the bladder and urinary tubules.

History & Folklore If the “erica” that
Dioscorides discusses in his I st century ce Materia

Camellia sinensis syn. Thea sinensis
(Theaceae)

Tea

Description Evergreen shrub clipped to 5 ft
(1.5 m) in cultivation, with leathery, dark green
leaves and fragrant white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Cultivated principally in
India, Sri Lanka, and China, tea has been grown
since the earliest times.

Tea leaves are picked throughout the year and used both
as a beverage and medicinally.

Medica is indeed heather; as has been surmised, then
the flowering tips were used in classical times to
treat snake bite. Galen (13 1-200 ce) wrote of
the plant’s ability to induce sweating. The rootstock
of heather is made into musical pipes, the foliage
provides mattress stuffing, and the flowers produce
a delicate honey. White heather is considered very
lucky, especially in Scotland.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Heather is a good
urinary antiseptic and diuretic, disinfecting the
urinary tract and mildly increasing urine production.
Besides its role in treating cystitis and inflammatory
bladder conditions, heather has been used to
treat kidney and bladder stones. Cleansing and
detoxifying, it is helpful for rheumatism, arthritis,
and gout. A hot poultice of heather tips is a
traditional remedy for chilblains and rheumatism.

Parts Used Leaves, buds.

Constituents Tea contains xanthines, caffeine
(I -5%), theobromine, tannins including polyphenols,
flavonoids, fats, and vitamin C. Green tea contains
significant levels of polyphenols; black tea, which
is produced by a process of fermentation, has
lower levels.

History & Folklore In China and Japan
many rituals have developed around tea drinking.
Significantly it is mostly green tea that is drunk in
this way.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to its

astringency, tea is useful in digestive infections,
helping to tighten up the mucous membranes of
the gut and reduce looseness. A strong brew of tea
may be used to soothe irritated eyelids,
insect stings, swellings, and sunburn, and
in an emergency, if nothing better is at
hand, tea makes a serviceable treatment
for minor burns. In Ayurvedic medicine tea
is considered astringent and a nerve tonic.
The caffeine in tea may help to relieve
headaches, though less effectively than
coffee (Coffea arabica, p. 192). In light of
research, green tea is recognized as being a
much healthier drink than black tea.
Research Green tea’s strong antioxidant
activity is due to polyphenols, which give the
leaf potential as a cancer preventative.
The high intake of green tea in China and
Japan is thought to be partly responsible for
the low incidence of cancer in these countries.
Clinical trials indicate that green tea may help to
promote weight loss and treat hepatitis, and
there is the suggestion that it helps to prevent
tooth decay. A recent clinical trial indicated that
green tea has a ge no protective action, helping to
prevent degenerative changes within the body, and
potentially slowing the aging process. A 2013 clinical
trial found that green tea extract taken by women
for 4 months successfully shrank uterine fibroids.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

CANANGA ODORATA

Cananga odorata syn. Canangium
odoratum (Annonaceae)

Ylang-Ylang

Description Evergreen tree growing to 80 ft
(25 m). Has lance-shaped leaves and strongly
scented yellow-green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Indonesia
and the Philippines, ylang-ylang is cultivated in
tropical Asia and Africa.

Parts Used Flowers, essential oil.
Constituents The essential oil contains
linalool (I 1-30%), safrole, eugenol, geraniol, and
sesquiterpenes (including 15-25% germacrene).
History & Folklore The flowers are a traditional
adornment in the Far East. Their scent is thought to
have aphrodisiac qualities.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The flowers
and essential oil are sedative, antimicrobial, and
antioxidant. The oil has a soothing effect, and its
main therapeutic uses are to slow an excessively
fast heart rate and to lower blood pressure. With
its reputation as an aphrodisiac, ylang-ylang may be
helpful in treating impotence.

O Caution Do not take the essential oil
internally without professional supervision.

Canella winterana syn. C. alba
(Canellaceae)

Canella,

Wild Cinnamon

Description White-barked tree growing to
49 ft (15 m). Has elliptical leaves, red flowers, and
purple-black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Caribbean and Florida, canella is found in coastal
swamps and scrubland. The bark is collected by
gently beating the branches.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Canella contains about
I % volatile oil (including eugenol, alpha-pinene, and
caryophyllene), alpha-aldehydes (including canellal),
resin, and mannitol.

History & Folklore Canella has for a long
time been used as a flavoring for tobacco ( Nicotiana
tabacum, p. 240).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Canella is cytotoxic
(kills cells), antifungal, and repels insects. It is also
aromatic, stimulant, and antiseptic. Canella is often
used in the West Indies and Fatin America as a
substitute for cinnamon ( Cinnamomum spp.,
p. 81). The infusion is drunk for its pleasant flavor
and tonic effect (the bark is considered a sexual
stimulant). Canella is also used for stomach problems
I 82 and indigestion.

Cannabis sativa (Cannabinaceae)

Marijuana,

Huo Ma Ren (Chinese)

Description Erect, branching annual growing to
13 ft (4 m). Has fine, serrated, segmented leaves.
Both male and female plants flower; the female
plant produces seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Caucasus,
China, Iran, and northern India, marijuana is culti¬
vated the world over; both legally (for the fiber and
seeds) and illegally (for use as a recreational drug).
Parts Used Flowering tops of female plants, seeds.
Constituents Marijuana contains
over 60 different types of cannabinoids,
including THC (delta
9-tetrahydrocannabinol).

It also contains flavonoids,
volatile oil, and alkaloids. It
is the only plant to contain
THC, one of the main
psychoactive
constituents. The
seed oil contains
approximately 55%
linoleic acid, 20% alpha-
linolenic acid and l.5%gamma-
linolenic acid.

History & Folklore
In ancient Egypt, marijuana was used to treat
inflammations of the eye and “to cool the uterus.”
First records of marijuana’s use in India date back
to about 800 bce, where it is recommended
for congestion. Famously, Queen Victoria took
marijuana as an analgesic—in the 19th century
the plant was a standard painkiller for menstrual
pain and cramps. From 1840 to 1900, over 100
papers were published recommending marijuana
as a medicine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In view of its
long history as a medicinal treatment, it is hardly
surprising that marijuana has, at one time or another;
been recommended for almost every illness. As
an analgesic, it appears to relieve pain with minimal
side effects, being particularly helpful for cancer and
AIDS patients undergoing chemotherapy. For those
suffering from multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and
other muscular illnesses, marijuana can reduce
neurological overactivity and muscle spasm. The
plant provides effective treatment for glaucoma,
in which pressure within the eye is abnormally
high, and is hypotensive, lowering blood pressure.
Marijuana relieves asthma, menstrual pains, the pain
of childbirth, and of arthritis and rheumatism, and
may have value as an antidepressant. It encourages
and induces sleep. The seeds are used in Chinese
medicine as a strong but well-tolerated laxative,
especially for constipation in the elderly; and as a

dietary supplement to provide a balanced and
healthy supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Research Modern research shows marijuana to
be a sedative, an anti-inflammatory agent, and an
analgesic as effective as codeine. Research has
focused on the constituent THC, but it is clear that
the complex of constituents within marijuana has a
significantly wider range of applications. Clinical
studies from 1975 onwards have shown that the
cannabinoids are powerfully antiemetic, especially
in those having chemotherapy. To varying
degrees, clinical trials indicate that marijuana or its
cannabinoids relieves symptoms in multiple
sclerosis (such as tremor, muscle spasm, and poor
coordination), in spinal cord injuries, epilepsy,
glaucoma, chronic pain, and loss of appetite. Now
that medical marijuana is legally available
in a number of U.S. states, there is
accumulating evidence of just how
effective the herb, and extracts of it, are in
relieving pain. A 2015 article in the Journal of
the American Medical Association found “30%
or greater improvement in pain with
cannabinoid compared to placebo,”
i.e., marijuana extracts on average
produced a 30% or more improvement
when compared to an inert substance. It also
found that availability of medical-grade marijuana
was associated “with a 15-35% decrease in
substance abuse admissions.” Not only is medical
marijuana a valuable analgesic, it also helps to
prevent addiction to other painkillers, in particular
opioids, such as codeine and morphine.

Caution Marijuana is a controlled substance in
North America. Research your local laws.

Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae)

Caper

Description Shrub growing to 3 ft (I m), with
spiny trailing stems, fleshy oval leaves, green buds,
large white flowers, and red berries in autumn.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean region, caper thrives in open
areas, often growing on stony terrain. The buds
are harvested before the flowers open and are
pickled for culinary use.

Parts Used Root bark, bark, flower buds.
Constituents Contains phenolic compounds.
History & Folklore Though much favored as a
piquant food by the ancient Greeks, capers were
said to disagree with the stomach. They remain a
popular condiment to this day.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The unopened
flower buds are laxative and, if prepared correctly
with vinegar, are thought to ease stomach pain.

The bark is bitter and diuretic and can be taken
immediately before meals to increase the appetite.

Marijuana leaf

CARICA PAPAYA

Caper’s buds pickled
with vinegar have been
used as a condiment

since ancient times.

for staunching blood—goldenseal (Hydrastis
canadensis, p. 105) and ergot (Claviceps
purpurea )—were unobtainable in Britain,
shepherd’s purse was used as an alternative.
Medicinal Actions & Uses One of the best
remedies for preventing or arresting hemorrhage,
shepherd’s purse has long been a specific treatment
for heavy uterine bleeding. While weaker-acting in
this respect than ergot, shepherd’s purse has none
of ergot’s toxicity and is better tolerated by the body.
It may be used for bleeding of all kinds—from
nosebleeds to blood in the urine. An astringent herb,
it disinfects the urinary tract in cases of cystitis, and
is taken for diarrhea. It is used in Chinese medicine
to treat dysentery and eye problems.

Research Reports suggest that the plant is
anti-inflammatory and reduces fever.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.
Self-help Use Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 3 15.

Cardiospermum spp. (Sapindaceae)

Balloon Vine

Balloon vine leaves are
applied to relieve aching joints.

The root bark is purifying and stops internal
bleeding. It is used to treat skin conditions,
capillary weakness, and easy bruising, and is also
used in cosmetic preparations. A decoction of the
plant is used to treat yeast and vaginal infections
such as candidiasis.

Related Species A decoction of the North
American C. cynophallophora is taken to encourage
the onset of menstruation, and is used as a gargle
for throat infections.

Description Deciduous perennial climbers
growing to 10 ft (3 m), with compound leaves,
small white flowers, and black seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Balloon vine is found
growing in tropical regions around the world.
Parts Used Root, leaves, seeds.

Capsella bursa-pastoris syn. Thlaspi
bursa-pastoris (Brassicaceae)

Shepherd’s Purse

Description Annual or biennial with an erect
stem, rosette of basal leaves, 4-petaled white
flowers, and heart-shaped seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Thought to be native
to Europe and Asia, shepherd’s purse is now found
throughout most temperate regions, and grows
profusely as a weed. It is harvested throughout
the year.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Contains flavonoids, polypeptides,
choline, acetylcholine, histamine, and tyramine.
History & Folklore This herb’s name derives
from the appearance of the seed pods, which
resemble heart-shaped purses. During the First
World War, when the standard herbal medicines

Constituents Most Cardiospermum species
contain cyanogenic glycosides.

History & Folklore Native Amazonians string
balloon vine seeds into armbands that are worn to
ward off snakes.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Indian herbal
medicine, balloon vine root is used to bring on
delayed menstruation and to relieve backache and
arthritis. The leaves stimulate local circulation
and are applied to painful joints to help speed
the clearing of toxins. The seeds are also thought
to help in the treatment of arthritis. The plant as
a whole has sedative properties.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Papaya

Description Herbaceous tree growing very
rapidly to 26 ft (8 m). Has segmented leaves,
yellow flowers, and large, black-seeded yellow
to orange fruits weighing up to II lb (5 kg).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
America, papaya is now cultivated in tropical regions
throughout the world.

Parts Used Fruit, latex, leaves, flowers, seeds.
Constituents The fruit contains proteolytic
enzymes (papain and chymopapain), and traces
of an alkaloid, carpaine. Papain, which is found in
the milky white latex that flows from incisions
in the unripe fruit, is a protein-dissolving enzyme
that aids digestion.

History & Folklore Papaya juice, shoots,
and latex were used in Mayan herbal medicine. In
tropical Fatin America, the leaves are used as a
meat tenderizer.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Papayas main
medicinal use is as a digestive agent. The leaves
and the fruit can both be used (the unripe fruit is
especially effective). The latex from the trunk of
the tree is applied externally to speed the healing
of wounds, ulcers, boils, warts, and cancerous
tumors. The seeds are used as a gentle purgative
for worms. The latex has a similar but more violent
effect. The flowers may be taken in an infusion to
induce menstruation, and a decoction of
the ripe fruit is helpful for
treating persistent
diarrhea and
dysentery in
children. The ripe
fruit is mildly
laxative and the
leaves are used
to dress wounds.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

CARTHAMUS TINCTORIUS

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Safflower,

Hong Hua (Chinese)

Description Annual herb growing to 3 ft (90
cm). Has long spiny leaves with 6 oblong-oval
leaflets, and groups of yellow flowers arising from
the leaf axils.

Habitat & Cultivation Thought to be native
to Iran and northwestern India, this herb is also
found in North America and the Far East. It grows
in open areas and is gathered in summer.

Parts Used Flowers, seeds, seed oil.
Constituents Safflower contains lignans,
polysaccharides and a volatile oil. The seeds
contain a fixed oil, up to 80% linoleic acid.
History & Folklore In 19th century North
American herbal medicine, safflower was used
to induce sweating, to promote the onset of a
menstrual period and as a treatment for measles.
Safflower flowers are falsely sold as saffron
(Crocus sotivus, p. 89).

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese
herbal medicine, the flowers are given to stimulate
menstruation and to relieve abdominal pain. The
flowers are also used to cleanse and heal wounds
and sores and to treat measles. In the Anglo-
American herbal tradition, the flowers are given
as a treatment for fever and skin rashes. The
unpurified seed oil is purgative.

Research Chinese research indicates that
safflower flowers can reduce coronary artery
disease, and lower cholesterol levels. Safflower
contains a polysaccharide that has been shown to
stimulate immune function in mice. Safflower oil
also lowers cholesterol levels.

Caution Do not take the flowers or seeds during
pregnancy (seed oil is safe).

184

Carum carvi (Apiaceae)

Caraway

Description Aromatic annual growing to 2 ft
(60 cm). Has ridged stem, feathery leaves, and
umbels of white flowers in midsummer. Exploding
capsules each contain 2 small narrow seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Caraway grows wild
in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It prefers sunny
sites up to 6,600 ft (2,000 m) above sea level. It
is cultivated in Europe, Russia, North Africa, and
the US, and the seeds are harvested ripe in
late summer.

Parts Used Seeds, essential oil.

Constituents Caraway contains a volatile oil
high in carvone (about 50%) and limonene. It also
contains a fixed oil, flavonoids, polysaccharides,
proteins, and furanocoumarins.

History & Folklore Caraway seed is
“conducive to all the cold griefs of the head and
stomach... and has a moderate quality whereby
it breaketh wind, and provoketh urine” (Nicholas
Culpeper, The English Physitian, 1652). The seeds
are commonly used in cooking.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Caraway is similar
in action to anise (Pimpinella anisum, p. 248)
and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212). Being
antispasmodic, the seeds soothe the digestive tract,
acting directly on the intestinal muscles to relieve
colic and cramps as well as bloating and flatulence.
They sweeten the breath, improve appetite, counter
heart irregularity caused by excess digestive gas,
and ease cramping period pain. In addition, the
seeds are expectorant and tonic and are frequently
used in bronchitis and cough remedies, especially
those for children. Caraway has a reputation for
increasing breast-milk production. The diluted
essential oil is useful for scabies.

Research In a German clinical trial (1999),
patients with dyspepsia were given a combination
of peppermint and caraway essential oils. Overall,
patients experienced a significant reduction
in symptoms.

Caution Do not use the essential oil internally
except under professional supervision.

Caraway is

antispasmodic,
diuretic, and
expectorant. It is
a mild remedy,
suitable for children.

Castanea sativa (Fagaceae)

Sweet Chestnut

Description Deciduous tree growing to a height
of 100 ft (30 m). Has smooth silver-grey bark,
lance-shaped dark green leaves, male and female
catkins, and spiny yellow-green seed cases containing
2-3 glossy brown nuts.

Sweet chestnut nuts are a nutritious food and the leaves are
useful for treating coughs.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus,
sweet chestnut grows freely across Europe,
including Britain. It is cultivated for its timber and
for its nuts, which are collected in the autumn.
Parts Used Leaves, bark.

Constituents Sweet chestnut contains tannins,
plastoquinones, and mucilage.

History & Folklore Tradition has it that the
sweet chestnut tree was carried from Turkey to
Sardinia and from there it subsequently spread
through Europe, arriving in Britain with the
Romans. The nuts are a nutritious foodstuff that
can be roasted, candied, or made into a flour.

The flowers are sometimes added to blends of
aromatic tobaccos.

Medicinal Actions & Uses An infusion of
sweet chestnut leaves is taken to treat whooping
cough, bronchitis and bronchial congestion. The
preparation tightens the mucous membranes and
inhibits racking coughs. A decoction of leaves or bark
is also valuable as a gargle for sore throats, and may
be taken for diarrhea. The leaves are used in the
treatment of rheumatic conditions, to ease lower
back pain and also to relieve stiff joints or muscles.
Related Species The Mohicans in North
America used an infusion obtained from American
chestnut leaves (C. dentato) to treat whooping
cough. In his Natural /History of North Carolina (1737),
John Brickell reports that the “leaves or bark of the
tree boiled in wine are good against the bloody
flux [excessive bleeding].”

CENTAUREA C YAN US

Catha edulis (Celastraceae)

Khat,

Catha

Description Tree growing to 49 ft (15 m). Has
reddish twigs, oval leathery leaves, and small yellow
or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Middle
East and the Horn of Africa, khat prefers grassland
and arid conditions. It is cultivated in Ethiopia,
Somalia, East Africa, and the Arabian peninsula.
Parts Used Leaves, twigs.

Constituents Khat contains alkaloids similar to
those in Ephedra species—norpseudoephedrine
(up to I %) and ephedrine, tannins, and a volatile
oil. Ephedrine-type alkaloids strongly stimulate
the central nervous system, are antiallergenic,
and suppress the appetite.

History & Folklore Khat is taken in some
African and Middle Eastern countries as a stimulant,
tonic, and appetite suppressant. Infused, smoked,
or chewed, khat produces an effect somewhat
similar to that of coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca,
p. 206). Whether khat is addictive is unclear, but
withdrawal can produce lethargy.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Mainly used as a
social drug, khat is also chewed fresh or taken in an
infusion to treat ailments such as malaria. In Africa, it
is taken in old age, stimulating and improving mental
function. Khat is used in Germany to counter obesity.
O Cautions Khat may cause headaches, raised
blood pressure, and general overstimulation if used
more than a few weeks at a time. Do not take
during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Caulophyllum thalictroides
(Berberidaceae)

Blue Cohosh

Description Upright perennial growing to 3 ft
(I m) with large, 3-lobed leaves, yellow to purple
flowers, and striking blue berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Blue Cohosh grows
wild in much of eastern North America from
Manitoba to Alabama, preferring woodland valleys
and damp, north-facing slopes. It is mainly wild-
harvested but is also cultivated commercially.
Parts Used The root and rhizome are harvested
in the autumn.

Constituents Blue cohosh contains alkaloids,
steroidal saponins, and resin.

History & Folklore “Cohosh” is an Algonquin
name, and blue cohosh was a popular herb with
many Native American tribes. Though it was taken
by both sexes to treat genitourinary problems, it
was primarily considered a women’s herb.

Blue cohosh is mainly wild-harvested but is also
cultivated commercially.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Current
medicinal uses of blue cohosh are not that
different from the past—-the root is still valued
as a women’s remedy. It is often prescribed as
a uterine tonic, bringing relief from uterine and
ovarian pain, while regulating to improve menstrual
blood flow. The herb also has anti-inflammatory
activity and may be used in treatments for
arthritic and rheumatic conditions.

O Cautions Only take under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy or while
breastfeeding. The plant can cause contact dermatitis.

Cedrus spp. (Pinaceae)

Cedar

Description Cedar of Lebanon (C. libani ) is a
majestic flat-topped tree growing to 130 ft (40 m).
It has dark green needle-like leaves and oval cones.
African cedar (C. atlantica ) grows to I 15 ft (35 m).
Habitat & Cultivation Cedar of Lebanon
is native to mountain forests of Lebanon, Israel,
and southwest Turkey. Atlas cedar is native to
the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, growing from
4,600-7,200 ft (1,400-2,200 m) above sea level.
Parts Used Leaves, wood, essential oil.
Constituents The essential oil of Atlas cedar
wood contains mainly alpha-pinene (up to 79%).
History & Folklore Cedar of Lebanon is
thought to have been used in building Solomon’s
Temple and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

The oil has been used for thousands of years in
incense, perfumes, and embalming.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cedar of Lebanon
is antiseptic and expectorant, acting to disinfect the
respiratory tract. Cedarwood essential oil has been
used for thousands of years for perfumes and for
embalming. It is most commonly distilled from Atlas
cedar and eastern red cedar (juniperus virginicus).
The oil is strongly antiseptic, astringent, diuretic,
expectorant, and sedative. Diluted and massaged

into the skin, it treats congestion, chest infections,
and cystitis. It is used to treat skin wounds and ulcers.
Caution Do not take essential oil of cedar
internally except under professional supervision.

Celtis australis (Ulmaceae)

European Nettle Tree

Description Dome-shaped deciduous tree
growing to 80 ft (25 m). Has lance-shaped leaves,
green flowers, and small round purple-black fruits.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean region and southwestern Asia,
European nettle tree is also planted as a border
tree in Italy and Lrance.

Parts Used Leaves, fruit.

Constituents European nettle tree contains
tannins and mucilage.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to their
astringent properties, both the leaves and the fruit
of European nettle tree may be taken as a decoction
to reduce heavy menstrual and intermenstrual
uterine bleeding. The fruit and leaves may be used
to astringe the mucous membranes of the gut in
peptic ulcers, diarrhea, and dysentery.

Centaurea cyanus (Asteraceae)

Cornflower

Description Annual or biennial plant growing
to 3 ft (90 cm). Has a multi-branched stem, a basal
rosette of leaves, and sky-blue flowers in summer.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Near
East, cornflower grows wild in all temperate regions,
often in cornfields. The flowers are gathered just
after they open.

Parts Used Flowers, seeds, leaves.
Constituents Cornflower contains flavonoids,
sesquiterpene lactones (including cnicin), acetylenes,
and coumarins. Cnicin is slightly antibiotic.

History & Folklore Cornflower’s medicinal
properties were first mentioned in the 12th-century
writings of Hildegard of Bingen. Later, the herbalist
Pierandrea Mattioli (1501-1577) recommended it
on the basis of the Doctrine of Signatures, which
held that a plant’s appearance indicated the ailments
it would cure. Cornflower’s deep blue color
symbolized healthy eyes, and for this reason it
became a treatment for eye ailments. (In France,
the plant is called casse-lunette, or “break glasses.”)
Medicinal Actions & Uses Cornflower is still
used in French herbal medicine as a remedy for the
eyes (the strained infusion is used as an eyewash,
and the petals applied as a poultice), but opinion
differs as to its efficacy. The petals are also taken as
a bitter tonic and stimulant, improving digestion

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

CEPHAELIS IPECACUANHA

and possibly supporting the liver as well as improving
resistance to infection. The seeds have been used
as a mild laxative for children. A decoction of the
leaves is used to treat rheumatic complaints.
Related Species Greater knapweed (C. scabiosa)
formed part of the medieval salve, an ointment
applied to heal wounds and to treat skin infections.
Self-help Use Conjunctivitis, p. 3 10.

Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae)

Ipecac

Description Small shrub with a slender stem
growing to I ft (30 cm). Has a few oblong leaves,
small white flowers, and purple-black berries.
Habitat & Cultivation This herb grows mainly
in Brazil. Cultivation has been attempted in Southeast
Asia with limited success. The root of 3-year-old plants
is unearthed when the plant is in flower
Parts Used Root, rhizome.

Constituents Ipecac contains isoquinoline
alkaloids, tannins, and glycosides. The alkaloids are
expectorant and, at a larger dose, cause vomiting
and diarrhea. They are also strongly amebicidal.
History & Folklore Ipecac came to Europe
in 1672, and achieved fame as a cure
for dysentery. But the cure was not without
controversy. It appeared to work well in some cases
but to have no effect in others. Now it is possible
to see why. There are two types of dysentery—
amebic and bacillary. While the herb is strongly
amebicidal, it has little effect against bacilli.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Though a highly
effective emetic (even moderate doses of ipecac will
stimulate vomiting until the contents of the stomach
are cleared), it is now rarely used in conventional
medicine as safer substitutes have been developed.
Ipecac continues to be a common ingredient in patent
over-the-counter cough medicines, as its strong
expectorant action helps to clear phlegm and ease
irritable coughs. It is used in the treatment of
bronchitis and whooping cough. Ipecac is also still used
for amebic dysentery.

O Cautions Do not use the root or rhizome.
Take formulations containing ipecac carefully and
only as instructed on the label. Several deaths have
resulted from overdose.

Ceratonia siliqua (Fabaceae)

Carob

Description Evergreen tree growing to a height
of 30 ft (10 m). Has compound leaves, green
flowers, and large violet-brown fruit (bean pods).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to south¬
eastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa,

I 86 carob flourishes in poor soil in warm temperate

climates; it is said to “want sight of the sea.” It is
cultivated for its fruit, and harvested in late summer
or autumn.

Parts Used Fruit, bark.

Constituents The fruit contains up to 70%
sugars, fats, starch, proteins, vitamins, and tannins.
History & Folklore In ancient Egypt, carob
pods were combined with porridge, honey, and
wax as a remedy for diarrhea. They also featured in
recipes for expelling worms, and treating poor
eyesight and eye infections.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Carob pods are
nutritious and, due to their high sugar content,
sweet-tasting and mildly laxative. A decoction of
the pulp can be used as an antidiarrheal, gently
helping to cleanse and relieve irritation within
the gut.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Strongly demulcent,
Iceland moss soothes the mucous membranes of
the chest, counters congestion, and calms dry and
paroxysmal coughs, being particularly helpful as a
treatment for elderly people. Iceland moss is also
very bitter and, within the gut, has both a
demulcent and bitter tonic effect—a combination
almost unique in medicinal herbs. It is thus of value
in all kinds of chronic digestive problems, for
instance irritable bowel syndrome.

Chamaelirium lutea (Liliaceae)

Helonias,

False Unicorn Root

Description Herbaceous perennial growing to
3 ft (I m) with large, green leaves forming a basal
rosette from which emerges a tall spike of green-
white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, helonias grows in low, moist, well-drained
ground east of the Mississippi river. In view of its
rarity in the wild, it is best to use alternative herbs
such as black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79)
and wild yam (Disocorea villosa, p. 91).

Parts Used Rhizome (lifted in autumn).

Iceland moss is used
to ease coughs and
treat congestion. It
also has a soothing
and bitter tonic effect
on the digestive tract.

Constituents Root contains steroidial saponins
(up to 9%), including chamaelirin and diogenin.
History & Folklore A traditional Native
American medicine, Helonias was prized as
a woman’s herb and used to treat a range of
gynecological problems. There is some confusion
about its precise use since several herbs share the
same (or similar) name.

Cetraria islandica (Parmeliaceae)

Iceland Moss

Description Yellow-green lichen growing in
undulating, leathery tufts up to 3 in (8 cm) across.

Habitat & Cultivation Iceland moss is native
to northern and alpine areas of Europe. It flourishes
in sub-Arctic and mountainous regions on rocks
and on the bark of trees, especially conifers. It is
harvested throughout the year.

Part Used Whole plant.

Constituents Iceland moss contains lichen acids
(including usnic acid) and about 50% polysaccharides.
Usnic acid and the other lichen acids are powerfully
antibiotic. The polysaccharides are antiviral.
History & Folklore Iceland moss has been
used since ancient times as a cough remedy, and
has also been used in European folk medicine as
a cancer treatment.

Helonias root was chewed
by Native American women
to prevent miscarriage.

CHELIDONIUM M AJ U S

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Western
herbal medicine, helonias has been valued as a key
remedy for conditions affecting the uterus and
ovaries. It is thought to have a “normalizing” effect
on the female reproductive system. It is thought to
regulate the release of hormones by the ovaries
and encourage a regular menstrual cycle. It has
also been used to treat conditions such as
endometriosis, ovarian cysts, and menopausal
problems. As it is now an endangered species,
other herbs (notably black cohosh) are routinely
used in its place.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Chamaenerion angustifolia
syn. Epilobium angustifolium
(Onagraceae)

Rosebay Willowherb

Description Perennial growing to 6 l A ft (2 m).
Has an erect stem, narrow leaves, and long spikes
of pink-purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb is found in
Europe and western Asia, and grows in clearings,
along roads, and in open areas. It is picked
when in flower in late summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Rosebay willowherb contains
flavones and tannins.

History & Folklore In Siberia, an alcoholic
drink has been made from this herb and the fly
agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Demulcent and
astringent, rosebay willowherb treats diarrhea,
mucous colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome. It has
also been made into an ointment to soothe skin
problems in children. Rosebay willowherb is used
to treat prostate problems.

Chamaemelum nobile syn.
Anthemis nobilis (Asteraceae)

Roman Chamomile

Description Aromatic perennial growing to
20 in (50 cm). Has feathery leaves and daisy-like
flower heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
Europe, Roman chamomile is now cultivated
across Europe, and also in other temperate regions.
The flowers are harvested as they open in summer.
Parts Used Flowers, essential oil.
Constituents Roman chamomile contains up
to 1.75% essential oil (including tiglic and angelic
acid esters, chamazulene and other sesquiterpene
lactones), flavonoids, coumarins,
and phenolic acids.

History & Folklore
Though called Roman
chamomile, this herb was (
not cultivated in Rome
until the 16th century,
probably arriving there Dried flower heads

from Britain.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A remedy for
the digestive system, Roman chamomile is often
used interchangeably with German chamomile
(Chamomilla recutita, p. 77). However, an infusion
of Roman chamomile has a more pronounced bitter
action than its German namesake. It is an excellent
treatment for nausea, vomiting, indigestion, and
loss of appetite. It is also sedative, antispasmodic,
and mildly analgesic, and will relieve colic, cramps,
and other cramping pains. By stimulating digestive
secretions and relaxing the muscles of the gut,
it helps normalize digestive function. Roman
chamomile may also be taken for headaches
and migraine, even by children. Its marked anti¬
inflammatory and antiallergenic properties make
it helpful when applied to irritated skin.

Cautions Do not use the essential oil
internally except under professional supervision.
The essential oil is subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

Cheiranthus cheiri (Brassicaceae)

Wallflower

Description Evergreen perennial growing
to 18 in (45 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves and
yellow-orange flowers appearing in spring.

The Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century ce) used
wallflower roots to treat gout.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe, wallflower is now found throughout the
continent. It grows on cliffs and old walls, and is
a common garden plant.

Parts Used Leaves, flowers.

Constituents The herb contains cheiranthin and
other cardioactive glycosides.

History & Folklore In 1735, the Irish herbalist
K’Eogh described wallflower thus: “It provokes
urination and menstruation and expels a stillborn
child, and the afterbirth if a decoction of the dried
flowers or a little seed is drunk in wine.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Although
wallflower was formerly used as a diuretic, there
was no understanding of its powerful effect on
the heart. In small doses it is cardiotonic, supporting
a failing heart in a manner similar to foxglove
(Digitalis purpurea, p. 202). In more than small
doses it is toxic, and is therefore rarely used in
herbal medicine.

© O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Chelidonium majus
(Papaveraceae)

Greater Celandine

Description Thin-stemmed perennial herb
growing to a height of 3 ft (90 cm). Has indented
yellow-green leaflets and 4-petaled flowers, which
appear in clusters in late spring.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
western Asia, and North Africa, greater celandine
flourishes close to human habitation, preferring
open areas, the banks of roadsides, and damp
places. The aerial parts of the herb are collected
in late spring or early summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, latex.

Constituents Greater celandine contains
isoquinoline alkaloids, including allocryptopine,
berberine, chelidonine and sparteine. Several
of these alkaloids are analgesic. Chelidonine is
antispasmodic and also lowers blood pressure.
Sparteine, by contrast, raises it.

History & Folklore In folk medicine, greater
celandine has often been viewed as a cure-all. It
has also been used for thousands of years to treat
and clear the eyesight, especially cataracts. According
to Pliny and Dioscorides (both writing in the
I st century ce), swallows used the latex that
flows from cuts in the stems or leaves as a
means to sharpen their eyesight. In 1598, Gerard
recommended the herb for eye disorders “for it
clenseth and consumeth awaie slimie things that
cleave about the ball of the eie.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Greater celandine
acts as a mild sedative, relaxing the muscles of the
bronchial tubes, intestines, and other organs.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

C H E LO N E GLABRA

In both Western and Chinese herbal traditions, it
has been used to treat bronchitis, whooping cough,
and asthma. The herb’s antispasmodic effect
extends to the gallbladder, where it helps to
improve bile flow This would partly account for its
use in treating jaundice, gallstones, and gallbladder
pain, as well as its longstanding reputation as a
detoxifying herb. Greater celandine’s sedative
action does not, however, extend to the uterus—
it causes the muscles of this organ to contract.
The herb is applied externally to soothe and
encourage the healing of skin conditions such as
eczema. The yellow latex of greater celandine is
applied to warts, ringworm, and malignant skin
tumors, which are slowly broken down by the
effect of its protein-dissolving enzymes.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Can cause liver damage in rare cases.

It is subject to legal restrictions in some countries.

Chelone glabra (Scrophulariaceae)

Balmony

Description Perennial herb growing to 2 ft (60
cm). Has narrow leaves and short spikes of
creamy-white to purple double-lipped flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Balmony is native
to eastern North America, balmony thrives in
habitats such as marshland, wet woodland, and
riverbanks. It is harvested when in flower during
summer or autumn.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Contains resins and bitters.
History & Folklore Balmony’s genus name,
Chelone, means “tortoise” in Greek, referring to
the flower head’s supposed resemblance to the
head of the tortoise.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A strongly bitter
remedy, balmony is principally used to treat
gallstones and other gallbladder problems. It
stimulates bile flow and has a mildly laxative action.
It can be taken to relieve nausea, vomiting, and
intestinal colic, and to expel worms. It may also
be antidepressant. Balmony is a suitable remedy
for children.

Chenopodium ambrosioides
(Chenopodiaceae)

Wormseed

Description Annual herb growing to 3 ft (I m)
with toothed lance-shaped leaves. Yellow-green
flowers in round clusters bloom in summer,
producing small black seeds in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation Wormseed is native
to Central and South America and the Caribbean.

It has been extensively cultivated in Maryland, and
in China.

Parts Used Aerial parts, flowering tops.
Constituents Wormseed contains a volatile
oil (up to 90% ascaridol, plus geraniol and methyl
salicylate), and triterpenoid saponins. Ascaridol is
a powerful worm expel lent.

History & Folklore An herbal remedy that
has been used for centuries, wormseed was used
by the Maya in Central America to expel worms.

In the eastern U.S., European settlers employed it
for the treatment of worms, especially in children.
The Catawba made a poultice from the plant,
which they used to detoxify snake bite and
other poisonings.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wormseed is
principally known for its ability to expel worms,
especially roundworm and hookworm. It is also
used in the Americas as a digestive remedy, the
leaves being taken to settle colic and stomach pains.
Wormseed’s muscle-relaxing action has led to its
use in the treatment of spasmodic coughs and
asthma. Externally, juice expressed from the whole
herb is applied as a wash for hemorrhoids.
Related Species Many species of Chenopodium
are used as foods, and some medicinally. The seeds
of C. rhadinostachyum are used as food by Aborigines
in central Australia. Good King Henry (C. bonus-

Balmony’s bile-inducing
property makes it useful
for gallbladder problems.

henricus), a species that is native to Europe, is
both eaten as a vegetable and used medicinally
to treat anemia.

© O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Wormseed is toxic when taken in
overdose. Do not take during pregnancy. The herb
is subject to legal restrictions in some countries.

Chimaphila umbellata (Pyrolaceae)

Pipsissewa

Description Evergreen plant with several stems,
growing to 8 in (20 cm). Has shiny wedge-shaped
leaves and small flat-topped clusters of white flowers
tinged with red.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, Europe, and Asia, pipsissewa grows in
woods and shady places, in sandy soils. The leaves
are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Pipsissewa contains hydroquinones
(including arbutin), flavonoids, triterpenes, methyl
salicylate, and tannins. The hydroquinones have
a pronounced disinfectant effect within the
urinary tract.

History & Folklore Pipsissewa was much used
by Native North Americans to induce sweating
and treat fevers, including typhus. European settlers
used the herb for rheumatism and for urinary and
kidney problems. It was listed in the Pharmacopoeia
of the United States from 1820 to 1916.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Astringent, tonic,
and diuretic, pipsissewa is mainly used in an infusion
for urinary tract problems such as cystitis and
urethritis. It has also been prescribed for more
serious conditions such as gonorrhea and kidney
stones. By increasing urine flow, it stimulates the
removal of waste products from the body, and is
therefore of benefit in the treatment of rheumatism
and gout. The fresh leaves of pipsissewa may be
applied externally to rheumatic joints or muscles,
as well as to blisters, sores, and swellings.
Research In tests on animals, pipsissewa leaves
appear to lower blood-sugar levels.

Chionanthus virginicus (Oleaceae)

Fringe Tree

Description Deciduous shrub or tree growing
to a height of 33 ft (10 m). Has elliptical dark green
leaves and long flowering stems with spikes of white
flowers. Produces dark blue oval fruits.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the U.S.,

fringe tree grows from Pennsylvania south to
Florida and Texas. It is also now found in eastern
Asia, and thrives on riverbanks and in damp

CIC H 0 RIU M IN TYB US

Fringe tree

is a valuable
tonic for the
liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas.

shrubby areas. The root is
unearthed in spring or autumn,
mostly in Virginia and North Carolina.

Parts Used Root bark, bark.

Constituents Contains saponins (including
chionanthin) and glycosides (including phyllirine).
History & Folklore Fringe tree was
commonly used by Native Americans and
European settlers to treat inflammations of the
eye, canker sores, and spongy gums. The Choctaw
of Louisiana applied the mashed bark to cuts and
bruises. Native Americans in Alabama used the
bark as a treatment for toothache. In the 19th
century Anglo-American Physiomedicalist
tradition, fringe tree was valued as a bitter tonic,
and the bark was often used to aid recovery from
long-term illness.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The root bark is
a liver tonic, stimulates bile flow, and acts as a mild
laxative. It is prescribed mainly for gallbladder pain,
gallstones, jaundice, and chronic weakness. While it
appears to be of benefit to liver and gallbladder
function, there is as yet no research to substantiate
its effects. The root bark also appears to strengthen
function in the pancreas and spleen. Anecdotal
evidence indicates that it may substantially reduce
sugar levels in the urine. Fringe tree also stimulates
the appetite and digestion and is an excellent
remedy for chronic illness, especially where the
liver has been affected. For external use, the
crushed bark may be made into a poultice for
treating sores and wounds.

Chondrodendron tomentosum
(Menispermaceae)

Pareira

Description Vine climbing to a great height in
tropical rainforests. Reaches 100 ft (30 m). Has
large leaves up to I ft (30 cm) long and trailing
clusters of flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Pareira grows wild
in rainforests in the upper Amazon region and in
Panama. It is collected from the wild as available.
Parts Used Root, stem.

Constituents Pareira contains alkaloids,
including delta-tubocurarine and L-curarine.
Tubocurarine is a potent muscle relaxant.
History & Folklore Pareira and similar species
are famous for being the source of curare,
the paralyzing arrow poison used by
Amazonian and other South
American Indians to catch their
prey. A dart or spear tipped with
curare causes instantaneous paralysis
on entering the bloodstream of the
animal. Traditional recipes for toxins
usually involve blending 10 or more different
plants, but pareira or a plant with similar action
is always present in the mix.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pareira’s notoriety
as a poison hinges on the effect of its toxic derivative
entering directly into the bloodstream. Provided
there are no cuts or sores in the mouth, the plant is
reasonably safe taken orally as a medicinal remedy.
The bitter and slightly sweet-tasting roots and stems
are mildly laxative, tonic, and diuretic, and also act
to induce menstruation. The plant is chiefly used to
relieve chronic inflammation of the urinary tubules.
In Brazil, it is also used for snake bite.

Research Pareira’s powerful ability to paralyze
has led to its being extensively researched.
Tubocurarine-one of the many alkaloids within
the plant-is now used (as tubocurarine chloride)
as an anesthetic to paralyze the muscles
during operations.

Related Species At least four other closely
related species of Chondrodendron are used to
produce the traditional poison known as curare.

© Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Pareira and/or curare are subject
to legal restrictions in some countries.

Chondrus crispus (Gigartinaceae)

Irish Moss,

Carragheen

Description Reddish-brown seaweed growing
to 10 in (25 cm). Plant body is flat and forked, with
a fan-shaped outline.

Habitat & Cultivation Irish moss is found on
the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America.

It grows just below the waterline, attached to rocks
and stones. In summer in North America, and in
autumn in Ireland, it is pulled up by hand or with a
rake at low tide and dried in the sun.

Part Used Whole herb.

Constituents Irish moss contains large
amounts of polysaccharides, proteins (up to 10%),

amino acids, iodine, and bromine, plus many other
minerals. The polysaccharides become jelly-like and
demulcent when the plant is immersed in water.
History & Folklore Irish moss is used
extensively in the food and pharmaceutical
industries as an emulsifying and binding agent,
for example in toothpastes.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A useful
demulcent and emollient, Irish moss is mainly
taken for coughs and bronchitis. Its expectorant
effect encourages the coughing up of phlegm, and
it soothes dry and irritated mucous membranes. It
is of value for acid indigestion, gastritis, and urinary
infections such as cystitis. For these conditions it is
normally combined with other appropriate herbs.
Mucilaginous in texture and slightly salty in taste,
Irish moss makes a valuable nutrient in
convalescence. Applied externally, this emollient
herb soothes inflamed skin. Irish moss also acts
to thin the blood.

Caution Due to its blood-thinning property,
carragheen should not be used by people taking
anticoagulant medicines.

Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae)

Chicory

Description Deep-rooted perennial growing to
5 ft (1.5 m). Has a hairy stem, oblong leaves, and
blue flowers.

Chicory leaves make a settling digestive tea.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
chicory also grows in North Africa and western
Asia. It flourishes along paths and roadsides, and
in banks and dry fields. The root is unearthed in
spring or autumn.

Parts Used Root, leaves, flowers.
Constituents The root contains up to 58%
inulin, caffeic acids, coumarins, flavonoids, polyynes,
an essential oil including sesquiterpene lactones,

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

C/NNA/VIOMUM CAMPHORA

and vitamins and minerals. There is now significant
evidence to show that chicory root protects the
liver from damage.

History & Folklore According to Pliny
(23-79 ce), chicory juice was mixed with rose oil
and vinegar as a remedy for headaches. The roasted
root is commonly used as a coffee substitute. The
young root can be boiled and eaten like parsnips.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Chicory is an
excellent mild bitter tonic for the liver and digestive
tract. The root is therapeutically similar to dandelion
root ( Taraxacum officinale, p. 141), supporting the
action of the stomach and liver and cleansing the
urinary tract. Chicory is also taken for rheumatic
conditions and gout, and as a mild laxative, one
particularly appropriate for children. An infusion
of the leaves and flowers also aids digestion.
Related Species The endive (C. endiva ) has
similar though milder effects.

190

Cinnamomum camphora

syn. Laurus camphora (Lauraceae)

Camphor

Description Evergreen tree growing to 100 ft
(30 m). Produces red leaves that turn dark green
as they mature, small fragrant yellowish flowers,
and oval red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China
and Japan, this tree is cultivated in tropical and
sub-tropical regions for its wood, from which
camphor oil is derived.

Parts Used Stems, root, wood, leaves, twigs,
volatile oil.

Constituents The plant contains a volatile oil
comprising camphor, safrole, eugenol, and terpineol.
It also contains lignans. Camphor is irritant and
antiseptic; safrole is thought to be carcinogenic.

A white crystalline substance derived from the
stems, root, and other parts of the tree, also called
camphor, has powerful antiseptic, stimulant, and
antispasmodic properties.

History & Folklore In the 13th century,
Marco Polo noted that camphor oil was highly
valued by the Chinese as a medicine, scent, and
embalming fluid.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Camphor is most
commonly applied externally as a counterirritant and
analgesic liniment to relieve arthritic and rheumatic
pains, neuralgia, and back pain. It may be applied to
skin problems, such as cold sores and chilblains, and
used as a chest rub for bronchitis and other chest
infections. Though the oil has been taken for
various complaints, internal use is not advised.
Related Species See also cinnamon
(Cinnamomum spp., p. 81).

Cautions Do not take internally. Camphor oil is
subject to legal restrictions in some countries.

Bitter orange has

a wide range of
medicinal uses.

Citrullus vulgaris (Cucurbitaceae)

Watermelon

Description Annual vine with hairy, 3-5 lobed
leaves, yellow flowers, and green fruit typically
growing to 10 in (25 cm) across.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
Africa, watermelon is grown throughout warm
temperate to tropical regions. The fruit is gathered
when ripe.

Parts Used Fruit, seeds.

Constituents Watermelon contains citrullin
and arginine, both of which are thought to
increase urea production in the liver; so
increasing the flow of urine.

History & Folklore Watermelon species have
been used in Egypt for more than 4,000 years,
figuring in wall paintings dating to the Old Kingdom
(2686-2181 bce). They appear to have been a
component in remedies for trembling fingers,
constipation, and expelling disease brought on
by demons. Egyptian myth recounts that the
watermelon originated from the semen of
the god Seth.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Watermelon is

best known as a thirst-quenching fruit that comes
into season when temperatures are at their hottest.
In traditional Chinese medicine it is used precisely
to counter “summer heat” patterns—characterized
by excessive sweating, thirst, raised temperature,
scanty urine, diarrhea, and irritability or anger.
Watermelon fruit and juice soothe these symptoms,
increasing urine flow and cleansing the kidneys. The
fruit’s refreshing properties extend to the digestive
system, where it clears gas. Watermelon may also
be used in the treatment of hepatitis. In hot, stifling
weather it is helpful for those suffering from
bronchitis or asthma. The cooling fruit pulp may
be applied to hot and inflamed skin and to soothe
sunburn. The seeds can be mashed and used to
expel worms.

Related Species The watermelons of Egypt
(C. lanata and C. colocynthoides) are very similar
species. The colocynth (C. colocynthus ), native to
dry areas of Africa and Asia, is extremely bitter
and contains a cucurbitacin glycoside with
antitumor properties.

Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae)

Bitter Orange

Description Evergreen tree growing to 30 ft
(10 m). Has leathery, dark green leaves, delicately
perfumed white flowers, and orange fruit.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical Asia,
this tree is now grown throughout the tropics and
subtropics. Orchards of bitter orange are found
along the Mediterranean coast, especially in Spain.

Parts Used Fruit, peel, leaves, flowers, seeds,
essential oil.

Constituents Bitter orange peel contains a
volatile oil with limonene (around 90%), flavonoids,
coumarins, triterpenes, vitamin C, carotene, and
pectin. The flavonoids are anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial, and antifungal. The composition of
the volatile oils in the leaves, flowers and peel varies
significantly. Linalyl acetate (50%) is the main
constituent in oil from the leaves (petitgrain) and
linalool (35%) in oil from the flowers (neroli). The
unripe fruit of the bitter orange contains cirantin,
which reportedly is contraceptive.

History & Folklore The bitter orange has
provided food and medicine for thousands of
years. It yields neroli oil from its flowers, and the oil
known as petitgrain from its leaves and young
shoots. Both distillates are used extensively in
perfumery. Orange flower water is a by-product
of distillation and is used in perfumery and to
flavor candies and cookies, as well as being
used medicinally.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The strongly acidic
fruit of the bitter orange stimulates digestion and
relieves flatulence. An infusion of the fruit is
thought to soothe headaches, calm palpitations,
and lower fevers. The juice helps the body
eliminate waste products and, being rich in vitamin
C, helps the immune system ward off infection. If
taken to excess, however, its acid content can
exacerbate arthritis. In Chinese herbal medicine,
the unripe fruit, known as zhi shi, is thought to
“regulate the qi,” helping to relieve flatulence and
abdominal bloating, and to open the bowels. The

COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS

essential oils of bitter orange, especially neroli, are
sedative. In Western medicine, these oils are used
to reduce heart rate and palpitations, to encourage
sleep, and to soothe the digestive tract. Diluted neroli
is applied as a relaxing massage oil. The distilled flower
water is antispasmodic and sedative.

Related Species The lime (C. aurantiifolia)
and lemon (C. limon, p. 82) have nutritional
properties that are similar to those of bitter
orange. See also bergamot (C. bergamia,
following entry).

Caution Do not take the essential oils internally
except under professional supervision.

Clerodendrum trichotomum
(Verbenaceae)

Chou Wu Tong

Description Upright, deciduous shrub growing
to 10 ft (3 m). Has large leaves, clusters of white
flowers, and blue berries.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb grows
in central and southern China. The leaves are
harvested just before it flowers.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Chou wu tong contains clerodendrin,
acacetin, and mesoinositol.

History & Folklore Chou wu tong was first
documented in the Illustrated Classic of the Materia
Medina (1061 ce).

Cnicus benedictus syn. Carbenia
benedicta, Carduus benedictus
(Asteraceae)

Holy Thistle

Description Erect, red-stemmed annual growing
to 26 in (65 cm). Has spiny leathery leaves, a spiny
stem, and yellow flowers in summer and autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation This Mediterranean
plant flourishes on dry stony ground and in open
areas. The leaves and flowering tops are collected
in summer.

Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops.
Constituents Holy thistle contains lignans,
sesquiterpene lactones (including cnicin), volatile
oil, polyacetylenes, flavonoids, triterpenes,
phytosterols, and tannins. Cnicin is bitter and anti¬
inflammatory; the volatile oil is thought to have
antibiotic properties.

Cochlearia officinalis (Cruciferae)

Scurvy Grass

Description Low-growing perennial with
fleshy heart-shaped leaves, dense clusters of white
4-petaled flowers, and rounded swollen seed pods.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and temperate regions of Asia and North America,
but now rare, scurvy grass thrives in the salty
soil of coastal areas and salt marshes. It is
occasionally cultivated.

Parts Used Leaves, aerial parts.

Constituents Scurvy grass contains glucosilinates,
a volatile oil, a bitter principle, tannin, vitamin C,
and minerals.

History & Folklore As the common name
suggests, this plant has long been used for its high
vitamin C content. It was used by sailors and others

Citrus bergamia syn. C. aurantium
var. bergamia (Rutaceae)

Bergamot

Description Evergreen tree growing to 30
ft (10 m). Has pointed oval leaves, scented
white flowers, and fruit with aromatic peel.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
Asia, bergamot is cultivated in sub-tropical regions,
especially in southern Italy.

Part Used Essential oil.

Constituents Bergamot contains a volatile
oil including linalyl acetate (30-60%), limonene
(26-42%), and linalool (I 1-22%), bergapten,
and a diterpene.

History & Folklore Bergamot oil, expressed
from the peel, provides the distinctive flavor of
Earl Grey tea. The oil (or constituents of it) is
sometimes added to suntanning oils.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Bergamot is
little used in herbal medicine, but it can be used
to relieve tension, relax muscle spasms, and
improve digestion.

Caution Do not take bergamot essential
oil internally.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese herbal
medicine, chou wu tong is prescribed for joint pain,
numbness, and paralysis, and occasionally for
eczema. Traditionally regarded as a plant that
“dispels wind-dampness,” it is now also being used
to help lower blood pressure. The plant is mildly
analgesic and, when used with the herb
Siegesbeckia pubescens, is anti-inflammatory.
Research In a Chinese trial, 171 people with high
blood pressure were given chou wu tong. In 8 I %
of those tested, blood pressure levels dropped
significantly. This effect was reversed when the
treatment was stopped.

Related Species C. serratum is commonly used
in Ayurvedic medicine for respiratory conditions.

History & Folklore In the Middle Ages,
holy thistle was thought to cure the plague. In his
herbal of 1568, Nicholas Turner wrote: “There
is nothing better for the canker [ulcerous sore]
and old rotten and festering sores than the
leaves, juice, broth, powder, and water of
holy thistle.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Holy thistle
is a good bitter tonic, stimulating secretions
within the salivary glands, stomach, gallbladder,
and intestines, and thereby improving digestion.
It is taken, generally as a tincture, for minor
digestive complaints. It has also been a treatment
for intermittent fevers. Holy thistle is mildly
expectorant and antibiotic. It makes a healing balm
for wounds and sores.

Cautions In excessive doses, holy thistle
may cause vomiting. It is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Chou wu tong has been
shown by research to lower
high blood pressure.

Holy thistle was a

16th-century remedy for
migraine headaches.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

COCOS N U C I F E RA

to prevent the onset of scurvy, a potentially
fatal vitamin C deficiency marked by bleeding
of the gums.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Besides having a
high vitamin C content, scurvy grass has antiseptic
and mild laxative actions. The young plant, which
has a general detoxicant effect and contains a wide
range of minerals, is taken as a spring tonic. Like
watercress (Nasturtium officinale, p. 239), it has
diuretic properties and is useful for any condition
in which poor nutrition is a factor. It can be used in
the form of a juice as an antiseptic mouthwash for
canker sores, and can also be applied externally to
spots and pimples.

Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae)

Coconut,

Coconut Palm

Description Too familiar to need description,
the coconut is a large palm reaching up to 100 ft
(30 m) in height with a single, smooth trunk and
long-ribbed leaves up to 20 ft (6 m) in length.
Habitat & Cultivation Thought to have
originated in Southeast Asia, coconut is now found
throughout the tropics. It thrives in sandy, salty soils
(typically coastal) and requires abundant sun and
rain. Propagated by seed, the one-seeded nut
grows out through one of the three germinating
pores at its base. In 2009, coconut was grown
commercially in 80 countries, with a total production
of 61.7 million tons. A coconut palm can produce
up to 10,000 nuts during its lifetime.

Parts Used Kernel (fresh or dried), water. Every
part of coconut is useful.

Coconut palms have spread across the tropical regions of the
globe. The oil has antimicrobial properties.

Constituents Coconut oil is about 90%
saturated fat, mostly medium-chain fatty acids
(lauric, myristic, caprylic, and capric acids). Coconut
water contains significant levels of minerals, notably
potassium. Virgin coconut oil is entirely non-toxic.
History & Folklore The coconut palm is
described as “Kalpavriksha” (meaning “the all-giving
tree”) in ancient Indian texts.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Coconut oil
and cream have established antimicrobial and
immunostimulant activity. With antibacterial,
antifungal, and antiviral properties, the oil and
cream can be used to counter many commonly
occurring infections, such as influenza, cold sores,
shingles, and fungal problems. Coconut has a
beneficial action on the gut flora and can prove
useful (alongside other treatment) in clearing
intestinal worms and parasites. Coconut oil and
cream aid digestion and the absorption of nutrients
(notably calcium and magnesium), and may be
taken as part of a regimen to prevent or treat
osteoporosis. Coconut water is reported to lower
blood pressure, in part due to its high potassium
content, while the oil helps prevent arteriosclerosis.
It is also thought to lower cholesterol levels, aid
weight loss, and lower blood glucose levels.
Coconut oil helps keep skin and hair healthy and is
a common ingredient in skin creams and shampoos.
Coconut merits its name of “all-giving tree.”

Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae)

Coffee

Description Evergreen shrub or small tree
growing to 30 ft (9 m). Has dark green, shiny oval
leaves and white star-shaped flowers. Produces
small red fruit, each containing 2 seeds (beans).

Habitat & Cultivation Coffee is native
to tropical East Africa, and is now cultivated in
tropical areas worldwide. The best-quality beans
are produced by fermenting, sun-drying, and
roasting the seeds.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents Coffee contains chlorogenic
acids, tannins, and xanthines-caffeine (0.6-0.32%),
theobromine, and theophylline. Caffeine is a strong
stimulant. Theophylline is a stimulant and smooth
muscle relaxant. Chlorogenic acids are anti¬
inflammatory.

History & Folklore Native to the plateaus of
central Ethiopia, where it is thought to have
originated, coffee spread to Yemen in the 6th
century ce and then on into the Arabian
peninsula. The Arabian physician Rhazes first
recorded coffee’s use in the I Oth century ce.

While coffee drinking formed part of Sufi prayer
rituals, being taken to enable longer, more ecstatic
prayerthrough the night, coffee gradually became

Coffee, native to East Africa, can be used to
relieve headaches.

the popular stimulant drink that we know
today, spreading to Europe in the 17th century.

By 2015, the annual trade in coffee exceeded
$ 10 billion.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Coffee is an
effective and much-loved stimulant of central
nervous function, aiding mental alertness and
perception. Coffee (and extracts) increase physical
performance and heart output, stimulate digestive
juices, and act as a powerful diuretic. It can be taken
to counter drowsiness and to relieve headaches and
migraines. It is non-addictive, although excess intake
or sudden withdrawal from coffee may cause
headaches. Many natural medicine practitioners
consider overuse of coffee to be unhealthy as it is
associated with nervous and endocrine exhaustion.
Decaffeinated green coffee bean extract is taken
to promote weight loss.

Research Regular coffee drinking is associated
with a significantly decreased risk of colon cancer.
Coffee may have a protective effect against
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.

Cautions Percolated or boiled coffee is thought
to have potentially harmful effects on the heart
and circulation and to raise cholesterol levels.
Caffeine can increase pre-menstrual symptoms
and period pains.

Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae)

Kola Nut,

Cola Nut

Description Evergreen tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m) with dark green leaves and yellowish-white
flowers. Large woody seed pods contain 5-10
white or red seeds (nuts).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to West
Africa, kola nut is cultivated widely in the tropics,
especially in Nigeria, Brazil, and the West Indies.

COMMIPHORA MU K U L

The seeds are harvested when ripe and dried
in the sun.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents Kola nut contains up to
2.5% caffeine (generally higher than coffee),
theobromine, tannins, phlobaphene, and an
anthocyanin.

History & Folklore Chewed for their
digestive, tonic, and aphrodisiac properties, kola
nuts have been an integral part of western and
central African life for thousands of years. Kola
nuts are used in huge quantities today to flavor
soft drinks.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Kola nut
stimulates the central nervous system and the body
as a whole. It increases alertness and muscular
strength, counters lethargy, and has been used
extensively both in western African and Anglo-
American herbal medicine as an antidepressant,
particularly during recovery from chronic illness.
Like coffee (Coffea arabica, preceding entry), kola
is used to treat headaches and migraine. It is
diuretic and astringent, and may be taken for
diarrhea and dysentery.

Related Species C. nitida, which grows in
Africa, Brazil, and the West Indies, is used in the
same fashion.

Cautions Do not take if suffering from high
blood pressure, peptic ulcers, or palpitations.

Colchicum autumnale (Liliaceae)

Meadow Saffron

Description Attractive perennial growing from
a bulb-like corm to 4 in (10 cm). Has pointed
lance-shaped leaves and tubular 6-petaled pink
flowers in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation Common in Europe
and North Africa, meadow saffron grows wild in
woods and damp meadows. It is also cultivated.
The corm is gathered in early summer, the seeds
in late summer.

Parts Used Corm, seeds.

Constituents Meadow saffron contains
alkaloids (including colchicine) and flavonoids.
Colchicine is anti-inflammatory and is used in
conventional medicine for acute attacks of gout.
As it affects cell division it can cause fetal
abnormality. It has been used in the laboratory
to create new genetic strains.

History & Folklore Meadow saffron was not
used in classical times due to its poisonous nature.
Arabian physicians used it in the Middle Ages to
treat joint pain and gout, but otherwise herbalists
disregarded the plant until the 19th century.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Despite its
toxicity, meadow saffron is considered one of the
best remedies for acute gout pain. Leukemia has

well-established remedy
for treating gout.

been successfully treated with meadow saffron,
and the plant has also been used with some
success to treat Behcet’s syndrome, a chronic
disease marked by recurring ulcers and leukemia.
Taken internally, the herb has significant side effects
even at low dosage. Externally, it is applied to
relieve neuralgia and itchiness.

© ©Cautions This herb is highly toxic. Use
only under professional supervision. Do not use
during pregnancy. Meadow saffron is subject to
legal restrictions in some countries.

Collinsonia canadensis (Lamiaceae)

Stone Root

Description Perennial herb growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has a square stem, oval leaves, and clusters
of greenish-yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native
to moist woodlands of eastern North America.
The root is dug up in autumn.

Parts Used Root, leaves.

Constituents Stone root contains a volatile oil,
tannins, and saponins.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Stone root
has diuretic and tonic properties, and is chiefly
employed in the treatment of kidney stones. It is
also prescribed to counteract fluid retention. It has

been used to reduce back pressure in the veins,
which in turn helps prevent the formation or
worsening of hemorrhoids and varicose veins.

As an astringent, stone root contracts the inner
lining of the intestines, and can be helpful in treating
disorders of the digestive system such as irritable
bowel syndrome and mucous colitis. The fresh leaves
or roots of stone root are applied as a poultice to
bruises and sores.

Commiphora mukul (Burseraceae)

Guggul

Description Spiny shrub or tree, growing to 6IT
ft (2 m), with oval, serrated leaves, brownish-red
flowers, and red fruits. Guggul, the gum resin
obtained from the bark, forms pale yellow to
brown “tears” on the stems.

Habitat & Cultivation Guggul thrives in dry,
semi-arid and desert environments across much
of the Indian sub-continent and the Middle East.
Parts Used Gum resin.

Constituents Guggul is an oleo-gum resin, its
main active constituents being fat-soluble steroids
(guggulipids), in particular guggulsterones E and Z.
History & Folklore Early Ayurvedic texts
describe guggul as being effective in treating
obesity. This has led to research into whether the
gum resin might be useful for problems associated
with fat metabolism, such as raised blood
cholesterol levels.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Guggul has
anti-inflammatory, blood-thinning, and
cholesterol-lowering activity, and—true to
ancient understanding of the herb—can be
helpful in treating obesity. In Ayurveda, guggul
is principally used to treat arthritic problems, such
as osteoarthritis, though it is also considered to
have tonic and rejuvenating properties. As a result
of research in the 1980s and 1990s, guggul is
now most commonly used to lower raised blood
cholesterol levels and to improve blood fat
profiles in general. It reduces the stickiness of
platelets and thins the blood, and may have a
protective activity on the heart. Guggul is also
useful in the treatment of acne. The normal dose
of guggulipid extract is 1 — 1.5 g a day (equivalent
to 50-75 mg of guggulsterones).

Research Extensive research has shown that
the guggulipids have anti-inflammatory and
antiarthritic activity and prevent or reverse raised
blood cholesterol levels. In several clinical trials,
patients showed an average fall in cholesterol
levels of about 12%, and in triglycerides of about
14%. The overall blood-fat profile was also shown
to improve. Some clinical trials recorded weight
loss for patients taking guggulipids.

Caution Avoid if breastfeeding.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

CO NIU M MACULATUM

Conium maculatum (Apiaceae)

Hemlock

Convallaria majalis (Liliaceae)

Lily of the Valley

Description Graceful biennial growing to a
height of 8 ft (2.5 m). Has slender, red-speckled
stems, finely divided leaves, small clusters of white
flowers, and small seeds that have beaded ridges.

Hemlock is highly poisonous and
was used for capital punishment.

Habitat & Cultivation Commonly found in
Europe, hemlock also grows in temperate regions
of Asia and North America. It flourishes in damp
meadows, on riverbanks, and in open areas. The
seeds are gathered when almost ripe in summer.
Parts Used Leaves, seeds.

Constituents Hemlock contains alkaloids,
mainly coniine, and a volatile oil. Coniine is extremely
toxic and causes congenital deformities.

History & Folklore Hemlock is notorious
as the poison administered as a capital punishment
in ancient Greece. The Greek philosopher Socrates
died in 399 bce after drinking hemlock juice.
According to an old English tradition, the stems
took their color in sympathy with the mark placed
on Cain’s forehead after he murdered Abel. In the
19th century, hemlock was used in conventional
medicine as a painkiller.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In extremely
small quantities, hemlock is sedative and analgesic;
in larger doses it causes paralysis and death. Rarely
used today, it has been prescribed in the past as a
treatment for epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and
Sydenham’s chorea. Hemlock has also been used
to treat acute cystitis.

@ Cautions Do not take internally. Use externally
only under professional supervision. Hemlock is
subject to legal restrictions in many countries.

Lily of the valley encourages
a regular heartbeat and
acts as a strong diuretic.

Description Attractive perennial growing to
9 in (23 cm). Has a pair of elliptical leaves, clusters
of bell-shaped white flowers on one side of the
stem, and red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
this herb is also distributed over North America
and northern Asia. It is widely cultivated as a
garden plant. The leaves and flowers are
gathered in late spring as the plant comes
into flower.

Parts Used Leaves, flowers.

Constituents Lily of the valley contains cardiac
glycosides, including the cardenolides convallotoxin,
convalloside, convallatoxol, and others, and
flavonoid glycosides. The cardiac glycosides
act to strengthen a weakened heart.

History & Folklore The herbalist Apuleius,
writing in the 2nd century ce, records that Apollo
gave lily of the valley as a gift to Asclepius, the
god of healing. In the 16th century, the herbalist
John Gerard had the following to say about its
therapeutic value: “The flowers of the valley lillie
distilled with wine, and drunke to the quantitie of
a spoonful, restore speech unto those that have
the dumb palsie and that are fallen into apoplexy,
and are good against the gout, and comfort
the heart.”

A Medicinal Actions & Uses Lily of the
valley is used by European herbalists in
RA place of common foxglove (Digitalis
purpurea, p. 202). Both herbs
Uf| have a profound effect

in cases of heart failure, whether due in the long
term to a cardiovascular problem, or to a chronic
lung problem such as emphysema. Lily of the valley
encourages a failing heart to beat more slowly and
regularly, and to pump more efficiently, thereby
improving blood flow to the heart itself via the
coronary arteries. It is also diuretic and lowers
blood volume. The herb is better tolerated than
foxglove, as it does not accumulate within the body
to the same degree. Relatively low doses are
required to support heart rate and rhythm, and to
increase urine production.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Lily of the valley is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Conyza canadensis syn. Erigeron
canadensis (Asteraceae)

Canadian Lleabane

Description Erect annual herb growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has narrow, dark green, lance-shaped leaves
and clusters of small white flower heads that
quickly fade into silky white tufts.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, Canadian fleabane is now common
in South America and Europe. It thrives on
uncultivated and recently cleared land, often
invading in large swaths. It is gathered from
the wild when in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Canadian fleabane contains
a volatile oil (including limonene, terpineol,
and linalool), flavonoids, terpenes, plant
acids, and tannins.

Canadian fleabane was used both ritually and medicinally by
Native North Americans.

CORIANDRUM SATIVUM

History & Folklore In traditional North
American herbal medicine, Canadian fleabane
was boiled to make steam for sweat lodges,
taken as a snuff to stimulate sneezing during
the course of a cold, and burned to create a
smoke that warded off insects-hence its
common name.

Medicinal Actions & Uses An astringent
herb, Canadian fleabane is taken for
gastrointestinal problems such as diarrhea and
dysentery. A decoction of Canadian fleabane is
reportedly a very effective treatment for bleeding
hemorrhoids. The herb is occasionally used as a
diuretic for bladder problems, to clear toxins in
rheumatic conditions, and to treat gonorrhea and
other genitourinary diseases.

Related Species The Philadelphia fleabane
(£. philadelphicus ) was used by the Houma as
a treatment for menstrual problems. E. affinis, a
Mexican relative, is used to make a tooth powder
and to treat toothache.

Copaifera spp. (Fabaceae)

Copaiba

Description Evergreen trees growing to
59 ft (18 m). Have compound leaves and small
yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Copaiba is native to
tropical South America, and also found in southern
Africa. Oleoresin, a blend of volatile oil and resin
often also referred to as copaiba, is obtained by
drilling holes in the trunk.

Part Used Oleoresin.

Constituents The oleoresin contains a volatile
oil (30-90%), which in turn contains alpha- and beta-
caryophyllene, sesquiterpenes, resins, and
terpenic acids.

History & Folklore Copaiba was used by
native Brazilians long before the arrival of
Europeans. In 1625, the Portuguese monk Manoel
Tristaon observed that it was employed to heal
wounds and remove scars.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Antiseptic,
diuretic, and stimulant, copaiba is still used
extensively in Brazil. Chiefly employed to counter
mucus in the chest and genitourinary system, it
irritates the mucous membranes and promotes
the coughing up of mucus. A solution or tincture
of copaiba may be taken for bronchitis, chronic
cystitis, diarrhea, and hemorrhoids. Eczema
and other skin diseases reportedly benefit
from its application.

Related Species Several of the 40 Copaifera
species yield a medicinal oleoresin.

O Caution Copaiba is toxic in overdose. Use
only under professional supervision.

Coptis chinensis (Ranunculaceae)

Huang Lian (Chinese),

Chinese Goldthread

Description Perennial herb growing to 20 in
(50 cm). Has basal leaves and small whitish-green
flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native
to the mountains of China, and is most commonly
cultivated in Szechwan province. The root is dug
up in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Huang lian contains isoquiniline
alkaloids, including berberine, coptisine, and
worenine. Berberine is antibacterial, amebicidal,
and antidiarrheal.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A bitter-tasting
herb, huang lian is given in the Chinese herbal
tradition as a decoction to “clear heat” and “dry
dampness,” relieving fever, red and sore eyes, and
sore throats. The herb is particularly helpful for
diarrhea and dysentery, and has been used to quell
vomiting. Skin problems such as acne, boils,
abscesses, and burns are also treated with huang
lian. Like the root of goldthread (C. trifolia, see
following entry), huang lian is taken as a gargle for
mouth and tongue ulcers, and for swollen gums
and toothache.

Research In a Chinese trial, 30 patients with
tuberculosis were given huang lian, and all of them
showed marked improvement in their symptoms.
O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Coptis trifolia (Ranunculaceae)

Goldthread

Description Perennial growing to 6 in (15 cm).
Has a slender golden root, 3-lobed leaves, and single
small white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
North America from Labrador to Tennessee,
this herb prefers damp sites. The rhizome is dug
up in autumn.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Goldthread contains isoquiniline
alkaloids (including berberine and coptisine).
History & Folklore Though little used in
herbal medicine today, goldthread was once highly
valued. In a book recounting his travels in North
America, published in 1779, Jonathan Carver states
that the plant “was greatly esteemed both by the
Indians and the colonists as a remedy for any
soreness in the mouth.” The Montagnais used
a decoction of the root for problems associated
with the mouth, lips, and eyes. The Menominee
used the plant as a gargle for children’s throat

problems and also to treat ulcers and tumors
in the mouth.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A strongly bitter
tonic, goldthread has been prescribed in the North
American tradition principally for indigestion and
stomach weakness, though it has also come under
consideration as a treatment for peptic ulcers, and
has been applied as a wash for vaginal yeast
infection. Goldthread has been used as a
mouthwash, gargle, or lotion for mouth ulcers,
sore lips, and throats. The herb’s constituents (and
to some degree its actions) are similar to those of
goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis, p. 105) and it has
been used as a substitute for this herb.

Related Species Huang lian (C. chinensis,
preceding entry) is a close relative that has
similar actions.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Coriander,

Cilantro

Description Strongly aromatic annual growing
to 20 in (50 cm). Has finely cut upper leaves
(known as cilantro), small white or pink flowers,
and rounded seeds (coriander) in beige seed coats.

Coriander was used as a digestive aid and a treatment for
measles in 6th-century China.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe and western Asia, the herb is cultivated
throughout the world. The seeds are gathered
ripe in late summer.

Parts Used Seeds, essential oil, leaves.
Constituents Coriander contains up to
1.5% volatile oil, consisting mainly of delta-linalool
(at around 70%), alpha-pinene and terpinine. It
also contains flavonoids, coumarins, phthalides,
and phenolic acids.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

C 0 R N U S OFFICINALIS

196

History & Folklore Coriander has been used
throughout Asia, northern Africa, and Europe for
well over 2,000 years. It is listed in the Ebers papyrus
(dating to about 1500 bce), and apparently was
much employed in ancient Egypt. The herb reached
China during the Han Dynasty (202 bce-220 ce).
Pliny (23-79 ce) describes its use “for spreading
sores ... diseased testes, burns, carbuncles, and
sore ears, fluxes of the eyes, too, if woman’s milk
be added.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Coriander is
more often used as a spice than as a medicine.
Nevertheless, an infusion of the herb is a gentle
remedy for flatulence, bloating, and cramps. It
settles spasms within the gut and counters the
effects of nervous tension. Coriander is also
chewed to sweeten the breath, especially after
consumption of garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59).
Coriander seed has been used as an expectorant
to treat coughs and bronchitis, and in traditional
Middle Eastern medicine it is taken to calm
anxiety and aid sleep. The ground seed is
applied externally as a rub for rheumatic pain.

In Europe, it has traditionally been thought
to possess aphrodisiac properties.

Caution Do not take coriander essential
oil internally.

Cornus officinalis (Cornaceae)

Shan Zhu Yu

Description Deciduous tree reaching 13 ft (4 m)
with glossy elliptical leaves and bright red oval
berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,

Japan, and Korea, this tree is cultivated in central
and eastern China. The fruit is harvested when
ripe in autumn.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Shan zhu yu contains an iridoid
glycoside (verbenalin), saponins, and tannins.
Verbenalin produces a mild tonic effect on the
involuntary nervous system, especially that
governing the digestive system.

History & Folklore Listed in the I st-century ce
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing),
shan zhu yu is one of the constituents of the “Pill of
Eight Ingredients,” used to “warm up and
invigorate the yang of the loins.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses As an herb that
“stabilizes and binds,” shan zhu yu is used principally
to reduce heavy menstrual bleeding and unusually
active secretions, including copious sweating,
excessive urine, spermatorrhea (involuntary
discharge of semen), and premature ejaculation.
Related Species Several Cornus species are
used medicinally around the world. In Europe,
the fruit and bark of the cornelian cherry (C. mas )

and the bark of common dogwood (C. sanguined)
are used as astringents and to relieve fever. The
American boxwood (C. florida) was used by
Native Americans as a fever remedy.

Crithmum maritimum (Apiaceae)

Sea Fennel,

Samphire

Description Maritime herb growing to a height
of 2 ft (60 cm). Has long, succulent, bright green
leaves and clusters of small yellowish-green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Sea fennel grows on
the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea coasts of
Europe and Asia Minor. It is found on rocks and cliffs
close to the sea, and gathered in early summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Sea fennel is rich in vitamin C and minerals.

Constituents Sea fennel contains a volatile oil,
pectin, vitamins (especially vitamin C), and minerals.
History & Folklore A much-valued herb in
the past, sea fennel fell into disfavor but is slowly
becoming popular again as a vegetable, either
pickled or eaten fresh. The English herbalist John
Gerard described it in 1597 as “the pleasantest
sauce, most familiar, and best agreeing with man’s
body, both for the digestion of meates, breaking of
stone, and voiding of gravel.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though it is
currently little used in herbal medicine, sea fennel is a
good diuretic, and it has potential as a treatment for
obesity. Sea fennel has a high vitamin C and mineral
content, and is thought to relieve flatulence and
soothe the digestion. In this, the plant resembles its
inland namesake, fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212).
Glasswort (Salicornia europeae), also known as
samphire, is an unrelated coastal plant with a high
mineral content and is commonly eaten as a vegetable.

Croton spp. (Euphorbiacea)

Dragon’s Blood,

Sangre de Drago

Description Fast-growing tree reaching 49 ft
(15 m) in height. It has large, heart-shaped leaves
and greenish-white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Dragon’s blood
is a rainforest tree native to northwestern
Amazonia (from Bolivia to Colombia), preferring
riverbanks and sites with disturbed soil. It is
cultivated by the indigenous peoples there as
an environmentally sustainable crop.

Parts Used Latex, sap, resin (fresh or dried), bark.
Constituents Key constituents within dragon’s
blood include proanthocyanidins, mono- and
diterpenes, an alkaloid (taspine), and a lignan
(dimethylcedrusine). Many constituents, notably
taspine and dimethyldedrusine, have potent
anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties.
Taspine also has cancer-fighting and antiviral activity.
History & Folklore Dragon’s blood derives its
name from the deep red sap or latex that oozes
from the tree when the bark is cut. A prized
rainforest medicine, the latex is applied to wounds,
fractures, skin infections, and insect bites. Internally,
it is taken to treat diarrhea and dysentery,

1 stomach ulcers, viral infections, and as a vaginal
bath before and following childbirth. The first
written record of its use was in 1653 (Bernabe
Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Dragon’s blood is
a first-rate wound healer and has been described
as a “liquid bandage.” Tissue healing and repair is
strongly stimulated, while the chances of infection
developing in open wounds and sores is minimized
due to the marked antiseptic action of the latex
and its ability to seal off the wound from the open
air. The latex (fresh or dried) is a key remedy for
herpes, including shingles and genital herpes, and
fungal skin infections. Taken internally, it helps to
treat and prevent gastrointestinal infection and
peptic ulcers, and to control diarrhea in conditions
such as ulcerative colitis. A patent U.S. medicine
(Crofelemer) derived from dragon’s blood is
licensed for the treatment of chronic diarrhea,
typically in patients with HIV.

Related Species C. lecheri is most commonly
used to make dragon’s blood, although similar
Croton species grow in Central America. C. flavens
(Yellow balsam), a traditional Mayan and Aztec
remedy, is used for fever and infections, and as a
wound salve. Dragon trees, such as the Socotra
dragon tree (Dracaena cinnabari), are desert trees
and unrelated to dragon’s blood, though some also
produce a red latex.

Caution Can permanently stain clothing.

CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS

Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae)

Pumpkin

Description Annual plant with twining stems,
lobed leaves, yellow flowers, and large orange fruit.
Habitat & Cultivation Probably native to
North America, pumpkin is now found worldwide.
It is harvested in autumn.

Parts Used Seeds, pulp.

Constituents Pumpkin seeds contain a fixed oil
(30-50%), which is mostly linoleic acid (43-56%)
and oleic acid (24-38%). The oil also contains
protein (3 1-5 1%), sterols, cucurbitin, vitamin E,
beta-carotene, and minerals (4-5%), including
significant levels of iron, zinc, and selenium.
History & Folklore The pumpkin has been
much used as a medicine in Central and North
America. The Maya applied the sap of the plant
to burns, the Menominee used the seeds as a
diuretic, and European settlers ground and mixed
the seeds with water, milk, or honey to make a
remedy for worms. This practice became so
widespread in homes across North America that
the medical profession eventually adopted it as a
standard treatment.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pumpkin has
been used mostly as a safe and effective deworming
agent, particularly in children and pregnant women
for whom strong-acting and toxic preparations are
inappropriate. It is thought most effective in
removing tapeworms. The seeds are diuretic and
tonic to the bladder; and they have distinct value in
treating the early stages of prostate enlargement.
The fruit pulp is used as a decoction to relieve
intestinal inflammation and is applied as a poultice
or plaster for burns.

Research Pumpkin seeds’ range of medicinal and
nutritional compounds ensures that they have great
value as a “natural” food supplement. A good
dietary source of zinc, the seeds also contain

Pumpkin was a popular medicinal plant in the Americas;
its seeds are still used to treat worms.

relatively high levels of selenium, a mineral with
important antioxidant and anticancer activity in
the body. Cucurbitin repels intestinal worms, and the
sterols are anti-inflammatory. Research suggests
that pumpkin seed is effective in helping reduce
benign enlargement of the prostate gland (BPH),
due to both the hormonal influence of the sterols
and this anti-inflammatory activity. In one clinical
trial pumpkin seeds were combined with saw
palmetto (Serenoo repens, p. 136) to treat BPH:
those taking the herbal extract showed improved
urine flow and reduced frequency of urination.

Seeds

Cuminum cyminum (Apiaceae)

Cumin

Description Small annual growing to I ft
(30 cm). Has long, narrow segmented leaves,
clusters of pink or white flowers, and small
oblong ridged fruits.

Habitat & Cultivation Cumin is native to
Egypt and widely cultivated in southern Europe
and Asia. The seeds are gathered when ripe in
late summer.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents

Cumin seeds contain
2-5% volatile oil,
which consists of
25-35% aldehydes,
pinene, and alpha-
terpineol. The seeds
also contain flavonoids.

History & Folklore
A popular spice and medicinal herb in ancient
Egypt, cumin was used for illnesses of the
digestive system, for chest conditions and coughs,
as a painkiller, and to treat rotten teeth. The
herb is mentioned in the Old Testament and was
widely used in the Middle Ages. It has declined
in popularity since that time, although it is still
frequently used in contemporary Egyptian
herbal medicine. In cooking, cumin is an
ingredient that is found in many Chinese,

Indian, and Middle Eastern recipes, especially
curries and pickles.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cumin, like
its close relatives caraway (Carum carvi, p. 184)
and anise (Pimpinella anisum, p. 248), relieves
flatulence and bloating, and stimulates the entire
digestive process. It reduces abdominal gases and
distension and relaxes the gut. In Indian herbal
medicine, cumin is used for insomnia, colds and
fevers, and, mixed into a paste with onion juice,
has been applied to scorpion stings. The seeds
can be taken to improve breast-milk production-
a role it shares with fennel seeds (Foeniculum
vulgare, p. 212).

Cupressus sempervirens
(Cupressaceae)

Cypress

Description Evergreen tree growing to 100 ft
(30 m). Has tiny dark green leaves, and male and
female cones.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Turkey
and cultivated in the Mediterranean, this herb
is gathered in spring.

Parts Used Cones, branches, essential oil.
Constituents Cypress contains a volatile oil
(with pinene, camphene, and cedrol) and tannins.
History & Folklore Ancient Greeks took
the cones, mashed and steeped in wine, to treat
dysentery, the coughing up of blood, asthma,
and coughs.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Applied
externally as a lotion or as a diluted essential oil,
cypress astringes varicose veins and hemorrhoids,
tightening up the blood vessels. A footbath of
the cones is used to cleanse the feet and counter
excessive sweating. Taken internally, cypress acts
as an antispasmodic and general tonic, and is
prescribed for whooping cough, the spitting up
of blood, and spasmodic coughs.

Colds, flu, and sore throats,
and rheumatic aches and
pains, also benefit from
this remedy.

Caution Do not take
the essential oil internally
without professional
supervision.

Cypress has properties
similar to those of

witch hazel.

197

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

CURCUMA Z E D 0 A R I A

Curcuma zedoaria
(Zingiberaceae)

Zedoary

Description Perennial herb with large, tapering,
elliptical leaves, pink or yellow flowers, and an
aromatic, pale yellow root.

Habitat & Cultivation Zedoary is a common
Indian and East Asian plant. It is cultivated in India,
Bangladesh, Indonesia, China, and Madagascar.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Zedoary contains a volatile oil,
sesquiterpenes, curcumemone, curcumol, and
curdione. Curcumol and curdione have cancer¬
fighting properties.

Medicinal Actions & Uses An aromatic,
bitter digestive stimulant, zedoary is used in much
the same way as ginger (Zingiber officinale, p.

155)—to relieve indigestion, nausea, flatulence,
and bloating, and generally to improve digestion.
The rhizome is used in China to treat certain types
of tumors.

Research In trials carried out in China, zedoary
was found to reduce cervical cancer, and
increase the cancer-killing effects of radiotherapy
and chemotherapy.

Related Species In Chinese herbal medicine,
zedoary is often substituted for turmeric
(C. longa, p. 90).

Cuscuta epithymum
(Convolvulaceae)

Dodder,

Hellweed, Devil’s Guts

198

Description Leafless parasitic plant. Has
threadlike stems, which are usually yellow-red in
color, and small, scented, pale pink flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Dodder grows
throughout Europe, Asia, and southern Africa. It
prefers coastal and mountainous regions, and is
gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Dodder contains flavonoids
(including kaempferol and quercitin), and
hydroxycinnamic acid.

History & Folklore Dodder has always
been an unpopular country plant. It is also known
as hellweed and devil’s guts, due to its tendency to
overrun and strangle the plant on which it feeds.
This host can be thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143),
gorse (Ulex europeaus), or a crop such as beans.
Dodder does, however, have medicinal benefits.

In his Materia Medina, Dioscorides (I st century ce)
notes its use in classical times in combination
with honey to purge “black bile” and to lift a
melancholy humor. In 1652, the herbalist Nicholas

Culpeper similarly recommended it “to purge
black or burnt choler.” Culpeper further states
that dodder plucked off thyme is the most
efficacious, making the interesting point that the
parasite’s medicinal benefits are determined in
part by its host.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In line with its
traditional use to purge black bile, dodder is still
considered a valuable, though little-used, herb for
problems affecting the liver and gallbladder. It is
thought to support liver function and is taken for
jaundice. Dodder has a mildly laxative effect, and is
also taken for urinary problems.

Related Species Greater dodder (C. europaea )
and flax dodder (C. epilinum ) may be used in the
same way as C. epithymum. C. reflexa is employed in
Ayurvedic medicine to treat difficulty in urinating,
jaundice, muscle pain, and coughs.

Cyanopsis tetragonoloba
(Fabaceae)

Guar Gum

Description Erect annual growing to 2 ft (60 cm),
with hairy 3-lobed leaves, small purple flowers, and
fleshy seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian
subcontinent, guar gum is cultivated extensively
in India and Pakistan. The seed pods are harvested
when ripe in summer.

Parts Used Pods, seeds.

Constituents Guar gum contains about
86% water-soluble mucilage, comprising
mainly galactomannan.

History & Folklore Guar gum is a
viscous substance made from ground guar
seed mixed with water. It has been
used as a filter in the mining
industry, in paper manufacturing,
and in cosmetics.

Medicinal Actions &

Uses Guar gum is an
effective bulk laxative,
similar in action to
psyllium (Plantago
ovata, p. 123). It delays
the emptying of the

stomach and thus slows down absorption of
carbohydrates. As this appears to help stabilize
blood-sugar levels, guar gum may prove useful in
prediabetic conditions and in the early stages of
type 2 diabetes. Research also indicates that
guar gum lowers cholesterol levels. In Indian
medicine, guar seed is a laxative and a
digestive tonic.

Caution Do not exceed the dose. Guar gum
can cause flatulence, abdominal distension, and
intestinal obstruction.

Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae)

Quince

Description Deciduous tree growing to 26 ft
(8 m). Has green-grey oval leaves, pink or white
flowers, and yellow, pear-shaped sweet-smelling fruit.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to southwest
and central Asia, quince has become naturalized
in Europe, especially in the Mediterranean region.

It grows in damp, rich soils in hedges and copses.
The fruit is harvested when ripe in autumn.

Parts Used Fruit, seeds.

Constituents The fruit contains tannin,
pectin, and fruit acids; the seeds contain about
20% mucilage, cyanogenic glycosides (including
amygdalin), fixed oil, and tannins.

History & Folklore The quince has long been
prized as a fruit and medicine in Greece and the
eastern Mediterranean. It was used as an astringent
in the time of Hippocrates (460-377 bce).
Dioscorides (40-90 ce) records a recipe for quince
oil, which was applied to itchy and infected wounds
and spreading sores. In northerly climates, quince is
often cooked to make a preserve. The English word
“marmalade,” meaning citrus fruit jam, comes from
the Portuguese word for quince, marmelo.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The great
astringency of the unripe fruit makes it useful as
a remedy for diarrhea, one that is particularly
safe for children. The fruit and its juice can also
be taken as a mouthwash or gargle to treat canker
sores, gum problems, and sore
throats. When cooked,
much of the fruit’s
astringency is lost;
quince syrup is

^ recommended as a

^k pleasant, mildly astringent,

^k digestive drink. The seeds contain
significant quantities of mucilage
and are helpful both in
treating bronchitis and
as a bulk laxative.

Caution Do not use the
seeds except under
professional supervision.

Quince

Cymbopogon citratus
(Graminaceae)

Lemon Grass

Description Sweetly scented grass growing in
large clumps up to 5 ft (1.5 m). Has narrow leaf
blades and branched stalks of flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
India and Sri Lanka, lemon grass is now cultivated
in tropical regions around the world.

CYPRIPEDIUM P U B E S C E N S

Parts Used Leaves, essential oil.

Constituents Lemon grass contains a volatile oil
with citral (about 70%) and citronellal as its main
constituents. Both are markedly sedative.

History & Folklore Lemon grass is cultivated
for its oil, which is used as a culinary flavoring,
a scent, and medicinally.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Lemon grass
is principally taken as a tea to remedy digestive
problems. It relaxes the muscles of the stomach
and gut, relieves cramping pains and flatulence, and
is particularly suitable for children. In the Caribbean,
lemon grass is primarily regarded as a fever-reducing
herb (especially where there is significant
congestion). It is applied externally as a poultice or
as diluted essential oil to ease pain and arthritis. In
India, a paste of the leaves is smeared on patches
of ringworm.

Related Species C. martinii and C. nardus yield
essential oils that are widely used in soaps and
detergents. In Tanzania, medicine men smoke the
flowers of C. densiflorus to produce dreams
foretelling the future.

Caution Do not take the essential oil internally
without professional supervision.

Cynara scolymus

syn. C. cardunculus (Asteraceae)

Artichoke

Description Perennial herb growing to 5 ft
(1.5 m). Has large, thistle-like leaves, grey-green
above and woolly white beneath, and very large
purple-green flower heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean region, artichoke thrives in rich
loam in warm temperate climates. Commercially
grown plants are renewed after 4 years. The
unopened flower heads and leaves are picked in
early summer.

Parts Used Flower heads, leaves, root.
Constituents All parts of the plant contain the
sesquiterpene lactone cynaropicrin (which is strongly
bitter) and much inulin. The leaves also contain
cynarin, which has liver-protective properties.
History & Folklore Artichokes were
greatly valued by the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Dioscorides (I st century ce) recommended
applying the mashed roots to the armpit or
elsewhere on the body to sweeten offensive odors.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Artichoke is a
valuable medicinal plant. Like milk thistle ( Silybum
marianus, p. 137), it benefits the liver, protecting
against toxins and infection. Though the leaves are
particularly effective, all parts of the plant are
bitter and stimulate digestive secretions, especially
bile. This makes artichoke useful for the treatment
of gallbladder problems, nausea, indigestion, and
abdominal distension, with the added benefit that
it lowers blood cholesterol levels. A home recipe
from the Mediterranean region uses fresh artichoke
leaf juice mixed with wine or water as a liver tonic.
Artichoke is also taken during the early stages of
type 2 diabetes. It is a good food for diabetics,
as it significantly lowers blood sugar. It is also a
useful diuretic, and in France it has been used to
treat rheumatic conditions.

Research Research with laboratory animals
in the late 1990s has shown that artichoke has
a powerful positive effect on the liver. Artichoke
extracts, and cynaroside in particular, appear to
reduce cholesterol synthesis in the liver, while leaf
extracts are strongly antioxidant and liver protective.

Artichoke flower heads are nourishing and beneficial for the
liver and digestion.

Cyperus esculentus (Cyperaceae)

Chufa,

Tiger Nut

Description Erect, grass-like plant growing to
20 in (50 cm). Has cylindrical brown tubers, lance¬
shaped leaves, and rays of small spikes of green-
brown flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean region, chufa was first introduced to
Spain and North Africa by the Arabs. It now grows
worldwide, including in India. The tubers (called
“nuts”) are unearthed in winter and summer.
Parts Used Tubers.

Constituents Chufa contains 20-36% fixed oil,
known as chufa or tiger nut oil.

History & Folklore Chufa nuts have been
found in the excavations of the earliest settlements
in the Nile Valley, and since ancient times they have
remained a popular food in the region. The Greek
physician Dioscorides, writing in the I st century ce,
mentions their ability to comfort the stomach.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Chufa is regarded
as a digestive tonic, having a heating and drying effect
on the digestive system and alleviating flatulence. It
also promotes urine production and menstruation.
The juice is taken to heal ulcers of the mouth and
gums. Ayurvedic medicine classifies the nuts as
digestive, tonic, and aphrodisiac.

Related Species Many other species of
Cyperus are used as foods or medicines. For
example, in Chinese herbal medicine C. rotundus
is used as a liver tonic, to counter indigestion and
to promote menstruation. C. stolonifera, native to
tropical regions of Asia and Australia, is thought
to ease stomach pain and act as a heart stimulant.
Perhaps the most famous Cyperus species of all
is papyrus (C. papyrus). This plant provided fiber
for the first writing paper, invented by the ancient
Egyptians. Papyrus was also chewed like sugar cane,
and used medicinally in eye compresses and to
bandage wounds.

Cypripedium pubescens
(Orchidaceae)

Lady’s Slipper,

American Valerian

Description Perennial orchid with several
stems sheathed by broad lance-shaped leaves.

Has beautiful, complex golden-yellow and purple
flowers in late summer.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native to
eastern North America. Its natural habitat is woods
and pastures, but due to overharvesting, it is rarely
found in the wild. It is cultivated to a limited degree.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

C YTIS U S SCOPARIUS

Part Used Rootstock.

Constituents Lady’s slipper is poorly
researched, but it is known to contain a volatile oil,
resins, glucosides, and tannins.

History & Folklore Lady’s slipper was held in
high regard by Native Americans, who used it as a
sedative and antispasmodic. It was commonly taken
to ease menstrual and labor pains, and to counter
insomnia and nervous conditions. The Cherokee
used one variety to treat worms in children. In the
Anglo-American Physiomedicalist tradition, lady’s
slipper had many uses. Swinburne Clymer (in Nature’s
Healing Agents, 1905) considered the plant “of special
value in reflex functional disorders, or chorea,
hysteria, nervous headache, insomnia, low fevers,
nervous unrest, hypochondria, and nervous
depression accompanying stomach disorders.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to its scarcity
and cost, lady’s slipper is now rarely used. A sedative
and relaxing herb, it treats anxiety, stress-related
disorders such as palpitations, headaches, muscular
tension, panic attacks, and neurotic conditions
generally. Like valerian (Valeriana officinalis, p. 148),
lady’s slipper is an effective tranquilizer. It reduces
emotional tension and often calms the mind
sufficiently to allow sleep. Indeed, its restorative
effect appears to be more positive than that
of valerian.

Caution In view of its rarity, lady’s slipper should
no longer be used medicinally.

Cytisus scoparius syn. Sarothamnus
scoparius (Fabaceae)

Broom

200

Description Tall deciduous shrub growing
to 6 [ A ft (2 m). Has narrow ridged stems, small
trefoil leaves, and bright yellow flowers in leafy
terminal spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
broom is commonly found on heaths and verges,
and in open woodland. It is naturalized in many
temperate regions, including in the U.S. The
flowering tops are picked from spring to autumn.
Parts Used Flowering tops.

Constituents Broom contains quinolizidine
alkaloids (particularly sparteine and lupanine),
phenethylamines (including tyramine), isoflavones
(such as genistein), flavonoids, a volatile oil, caffeic
and p-coumaric acids, tannins, and pigments.
Sparteine reduces the heart rate and the
isoflavones are estrogenic.

History & Folklore Both the common and
species names of this plant indicate its usefulness
as a sweeper (“scopa” means “broom” in Latin).
Broom’s medicinal value is not mentioned in
classical writings, but it does appear in medieval
herbals. The 12th-century Welsh Physicians of

Broom, taken under professional guidance, helps to
regulate an overly rapid heartbeat.

Myddfai recommend broom as a means to treat
suppressed urine: “seek broom seed, and grind
into fine powder, mix with drink and let it be
drank. Do this till you are quite well.” Broom tops
have been pickled and used as a condiment similar
to capers (Capparis spinosa, p. 182).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Broom is used
mainly as a remedy for an irregular, fast heartbeat.
The plant acts on the electrical conductivity of the
heart, slowing and regulating the transmission
of the impulses. Broom is also strongly diuretic,
stimulating urine production and thus countering
fluid retention. Since broom causes the muscles of
the uterus to contract, it has been used to prevent
blood loss after childbirth.

O Cautions Take broom internally only under
professional supervision. Do not take during
pregnancy, or if suffering from high blood pressure.
The plant is subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

Daphne mezereum
(Thymelaeaceae)

Mezereon

Description Hardy deciduous shrub growing
to 4 ft (1.2 m). Has oval to lance-shaped leaves,
clusters of red or pink flowers, and small
red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Mezereon is found in
Europe, North Africa, and western Asia, in damp
mountain woodlands. It is cultivated as a garden
plant. The root and bark are gathered in autumn.
Parts Used Root, root bark, bark.
Constituents Mezereon contains diterpenes
(including daphnetoxin and mezerein), mucilage,
and tannins. Though highly toxic, daphnetoxin and
mezerein have antileukemic properties and have
been used to treat cancer.

History & Folklore Mezereon was formerly
well used in northern Europe, both internally as
a purgative and externally as an ointment for
cancerous sores and skin ulcers. The Swedish
naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) recorded
that the bark was applied to the bites of poisonous
reptiles and rabid dogs. People have reportedly
died simply from eating birds that have eaten the
highly poisonous berries.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Today, mezereon
is considered too poisonous to be ingested.
Mezereon is used occasionally as an external
counterirritant and is effective on rheumatic
joints, increasing blood flow to the affected area.
© Cautions Under no circumstances should
mezereon be taken internally. It should only be
used externally under professional supervision,
and never on open wounds.

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Thornapple

Description Robust annual growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has lobed oval leaves, long white or violet
trumpet-shaped flowers, and spiny fruit capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Thornapple grows in
the Americas, Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It
is cultivated for medicinal use in Hungary, France,
and Germany. The leaves and flowering tops are
harvested in summer, and the seeds in early
autumn when the capsules burst.

Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops, seeds.

Mezereon was once
used as a remedy
for rheumatic joints.

DI A N T H U S SUPERBUS

Constituents Thornapple contains 0.2-0.45%
tropane alkaloids (especially hyoscyamine and
hyoscine), flavonoids, steroidal lactones,
withanolides, coumarins, and tannins. The tropane
alkaloids are similar to those found in deadly
nightshade ( Atropa belladonna, p. 69), acting to
reduce secretions and relax smooth muscle.
History & Folklore Thornapple has a long
history of medicinal use. If taken in sufficient doses,
it causes hallucinations; the Delphic oracle in ancient
Greece and the Inca in South America may have
used it as an aid to making prophecies. Though it is
hallucinogenic, thornapple has traditionally been
used to treat insanity.

Medicinal Actions & Uses At low doses,
thornapple is a common remedy for asthma,
whooping cough, muscle spasms, and the
symptoms of Parkinsonism. It relaxes the muscles
of the gastrointestinal, bronchial, and urinary tracts,
and reduces digestive and mucous secretions. Like
deadly nightshade, thornapple may be applied
externally to relieve rheumatic pains and neuralgia.
Related Species D. metel and D. innoxia are both
native to India. These plants are employed in treating
asthma, coughs, fevers, and skin conditions.

© Q Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Since it is toxic at more than small
doses, thornapple is subject to legal restrictions
in most countries.

Daucus carota (Apiaceae)

Carrot

Description Annual (cultivated varieties) or
biennial (wild). Has erect stem, which grows to a
height of 3 ft (I m), with feathery leaves, small
white flowers, and flat green seeds. Cultivated
subspecies have fleshy orange taproots.

Habitat & Cultivation Wild carrot is native
to Europe, although cultivated subspecies are now
grown around the world. The root is harvested in
late summer, and the seeds are gathered in late
summer or early autumn.

Parts Used Seeds, root, leaves.

Constituents Wild carrot seeds contain
flavonoids, and a volatile oil including asarone,
carotol, pinene, and limonene. Cultivated carrot
root contains sugars, pectin, carotene, vitamins,
minerals, and asparagine. Carrot leaves contain
significant amounts of porphyrins, which stimulate
the pituitary gland and lead to the release of
increased levels of sex hormones.

History & Folklore The origins of the familiar
garden carrot are a mystery—it was cultivated as a
nutritious and cleansing food at least as long ago as
ancient Greece and Rome. In the I st century ce, the
physician Dioscorides recommended the seeds to
stimulate menstruation, to relieve urinary
retention, and to “wake up the genital virtue.”

The cultivated variety did not reach Britain until the
16th century, when women used its beautiful,
finely divided leaves to adorn their hair.
Medicinal Actions & Uses This common
vegetable is also a wonderfully cleansing medicine.

It supports the liver, and stimulates urine flow and
the removal of waste by the kidneys. The juice of
organically grown carrots is a delicious drink and
a valuable detoxifier. Carrots are rich in carotene,
which is converted to vitamin A by the liver. The
raw root, grated or mashed, is a safe treatment for
threadworms, especially in children. Wild carrot
leaves are a good diuretic. They have been used to
counter cystitis and kidney stone formation, and
to diminish stones that have already formed. The
seeds are also diuretic. They stimulate menstruation
and have been used in folk medicine as a treatment
for hangovers. Both leaves and seeds relieve
flatulence and settle the digestion.

Research In a study published in 1995, a carrot
extract was shown to protect the liver from toxicity.
Cautions Do not take carrot seeds during
pregancy. Use only organic carrot juice since
the root concentrates artificial fertilizers
and insecticides.

Desmodium adscendens (Fabaceae)

Desmodium

Description Perennial, much-branched herb,
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Desmodium has light
purple flowers, and the leaves each have three
small oval leaflets.

Habitat & Cultivation A native of West
Africa, including Sierra Leone, northern Liberia and
Ghana. The aerial parts are harvested as required
or after flowering.

Parts Used Leaves and stems.

Constituents Contains indole alkaloids.
History & Folklore Desmodium has long
been used in West African herbal medicine as a
treatment for asthma, and also for jaundice.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Desmodium is
chiefly a remedy for asthma and has been used as
an antiasthmatic in Ghanaian hospitals. In France,
the herb is taken for liver disorders including viral
hepatitis—both A and B—apparently having most
effect during the early stages. Desmodium may
also be used to relieve headache, backache, and
muscle and joint pain—a decoction being taken
internally or applied as a lotion.

Research Ghanaian research has shown the herb
to have antispasmodic and antiasthmatic activity. It
also appears to increase the resistance of liver cells
to inflammation, whether resulting from infection
or toxicity. When taken in the early stages of
illness, it normalizes liver function.

Caution In rare cases, desmodium can cause
nausea or diarrhea.

Dianthus superbus
(Caryophyllacaea)

Fringed Pink,

Qu Mai (Chinese)

Description Upright perennial herb growing to
32 in (80 cm) or more. Has narrow, lance-shaped
leaves and large, delicate, fragrant pink or lilac flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Fringed pink is native
to Europe and northern Asia (including China
and Japan) growing at altitudes of up to 7,900 ft
(2,400 m). It grows in clumps on hillsides and
crevices, and is cultivated from seed in eastern
China. It is only harvested when in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Fringed pink contains saponins,
dianthins, tannins and flavonoids.

History & Folklore Fringed pink is first
mentioned in the Chinese herbal known as the
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing),
which was written in the I st century ce.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Although fringed
pink is common in Europe, there is little indication
that people there have used it as anything other
than a vegetable (the young leaves are best boiled
or steamed). In Mongolia, it is used to promote
contractions and childbirth, and is considered a
diuretic, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory. In
Chinese medicine it is widely used for “damp-heat”
conditions, and prescribed for kidney stones and
urinary tract infections.

Research Research, mostly conducted in
Korea and China, indicates that fringed pink has
marked anti-inflammatory activity and possible
cancer-fighting properties.

Related Species The gillyflower (D. caryophyllus ),
of Mediterranean origin, has similar constituents
and is traditionally prescribed in European herbal
medicine for coronary and nervous disorders.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

DICTAMNUS A LB U S

Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae)

Dittany,

Burning Bush

Description Strongly aromatic, bushy and hairy
perennial growing to 32 in (80 cm). Has compound
leaves and spikes of 5-petaled white or pink flowers
streaked with purple.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb grows in
southern and central Europe and northern Asia,
preferring warm, wooded areas. The flowering
tops are gathered in late summer, the root
generally in autumn.

Parts Used Root, flowering tops.

Dittany flowers were formerly used to make a preparation
that was sniffed up the nose as a treatment for head colds.

Constituents Dittany’s potent volatile oil
contains estragol and anethole, and atoxic
alkaloid, dictamnin.

History & Folklore Dittany exudes such large
amounts of volatile oil that in hot, dry conditions, a
match held close will cause the whole plant to burst
into flames. The plant has been used to flavor
liqueurs and has been brewed as a tea in parts
of Siberia. In European folk medicine, dittany was
considered an antidote to poison, pestilence, and
the bites of all types of venomous animals.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Very rarely used
by herbalists today, dittany has an action similar
to that of rue (Ruta groveolens, p. 265), in that
it strongly stimulates the muscles of the uterus,
inducing menstruation and sometimes causing
abortion. By contrast, its effect on the
gastrointestinal tract is antispasmodic. Dittany
relaxes the gut and acts as a mild tonic for the
stomach. The plant has also been used as a
Ak treatment for nervous conditions.

© O Cautions This herb is toxic. Take only
under professional supervision. Do not take
202 during pregnancy.

Digitalis lutea (Scrophulariaceae)

Yellow Foxglove

Description Erect perennial growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has narrow, lance-shaped leaves, and long
spikes of yellow, bell-shaped flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
and central Europe, this herb grows in woodland
areas, on roadsides, and in mountainous regions. It
is cultivated for medicinal use in Russia. The leaves
are harvested in the second summer of growth.
Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Yellow foxglove contains
cardiac glycosides (including the cardenolides
alpha-acetyldigitoxin, acetyldigitoxin, and
lanatoside). All act to strengthen the beating
of a weakened heart.

History & Folklore Unlike the closely
related common foxglove (D. purpurea,
following entry), yellow foxglove does not
appear to have played a significant role in
European herbal medicine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Yellow foxglove
is little employed in herbal medicine, but in fact
it is a less toxic alternative to purple foxglove and
woolly foxglove (D. lanata). It has similar medicinal
actions but its alkaloids are more readily metabolized
and flushed out by the body. Like other foxgloves,
this plant supports a weakened or failing heart,
increasing the strength of contraction, slowing
and steadying the heart rate, and lowering blood
pressure by strongly stimulating the production
of urine, which reduces overall blood volume.
Related Species Common foxglove
(following entry).

@ ©Cautions Excessive doses of yellow
foxglove can prove fatal. Use only under
professional supervision. This plant is subject
to legal restrictions in some countries.

Digitalis purpurea
(Scrophulariaceae)

Common Foxglove,

Purple Foxglove

Description Perennial growing to 5 ft (1.5 m).
Has a single erect stem, broad lance-shaped leaves,
and bell-shaped, purple-pink or white flowers in
long spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native to
western Europe. Though it is also cultivated, the
wild plant is considered superior. The leaves are
picked in summer.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Foxglove contains cardiac glycosides
(including digoxin, digitoxin, and lanatosides),
anthraquinones, flavonoids, and saponins. Digitoxin

rapidly strengthens the heartbeat, but is excreted
very slowly. Digoxin is therefore preferred as a
long-term medication.

History & Folklore In medical history, foxglove
is best known as the discovery of William Withering,
an 18th-century English country doctor. Curious
about the formula of a local herbalist, he explored
the plant’s potential medical uses. His work led to
the production of a life-saving medicine.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Foxglove has a
profound tonic effect on a diseased heart. Heart
disease worsens when the heart’s ability to maintain
normal circulation decreases. Foxglove’s cardiac
glycosides enable the heart to beat more strongly,
slowly, and regularly, without requiring more oxygen.
At the same time, it stimulates urine production,
which lowers the volume of blood, and thus lessens
the load on the heart.

Related Species Woolly foxglove (D. lanata)
is today the main source of cardiac glycosides.

@ © Cautions
Potentially fatal in
overdose. Use only
under professional
supervision. This
plant is subject to
legal restrictions.

Common foxglove

enables the heart
to beat more
evenly and is an
invaluable remedy
for heart disease.

£ C HIUM VULG A RE

Dipsacus fullonum (Dipsacaceae)

Teasel

Description Perennial with a spiny ridged stem
growing to 6 l A ft (2 m), lance-shaped leaves, and
lilac-colored flowers blooming from hooked heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Common throughout
Europe and western Asia, teasel thrives on open
areas, roadsides, and banks. It is cultivated only on a
small scale. The root is unearthed in late summer.
Part Used Root.

Constituents Teasel contains inulin, bitter
substances, and a scabioside.

History & Folklore Traditionally, the root
was used to treat conditions such as warts, fistulas
(abnormal passages opening through the skin), and
cancerous sores. The water that collects in the leaf
was called “Venus’s bath” by early herbalists, and was
thought to be very beneficial for the eyes.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Teasel root is
little used medicinally today, and its therapeutic
applications are disputed. It is thought to have
diuretic, sweat-inducing, and stomach-soothing
properties, cleansing the system and improving
digestion. Due to its apparent astringency, teasel is
considered helpful in diarrhea. It is also thought to
increase appetite, to tone the stomach, and to act on
the liver, helping with jaundice and gallbladder
problems. A new application of teasel, so far
unsubstantiated, is in the treatment of Lyme disease.

Teasel was traditionally used to treat warts and fistulas.

Dorema ammoniacum (Apiaceae)

Ammoniacum

Description Very large perennial herb growing
to a height of 10 ft (3 m), with a stout stem,
compound leaves, and umbels of white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Ammoniacum is native
to central Asia, Iran, and northern Russia. When
pierced, the stem exudes a milky gum, which is
pressed into blocks and then ground into a powder.
Part Used Oleo-gum-resin.

Constituents Ammoniacum contains a resin
(60-70%), gum, volatile oil (including ferulene and
linalyl acetate), free salicylic acid, and coumarins.
History & Folklore Ammoniacum’s medicinal
value has been appreciated since ancient times, and
is mentioned by Hippocrates (460-377 bce). The
herb’s common name reputedly derives from
the Temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya, in an area
where it was commonly collected.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Used in both
Western and Indian medicine, ammoniacum is still
listed in the British Pharmacopoeia as an antispasmodic
and as an expectorant that stimulates the coughing
up of thick mucus. It is a specific treatment for
chronic bronchitis, asthma, and persistent coughs.
Ammoniacum is also occasionally used to induce
sweating or menstruation.

Other Species Ammoniacum is medicinally
similar to asafoetida ( Ferula assa-foetida, p. 210)
and galbanum ( Ferula gummosa, p. 21 I).

Dorstenia contrajerva (Urticaceae)

Contrayerva

Description Stemless perennial herb growing
to I ft (30 cm). Has palm-shaped leaves and long-
stalked greenish flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Central
and South America and the Caribbean islands,
contrayerva is generally gathered from the wild.
Part Used Rhizome.

History & Folklore Contrayerva means
“antidote” in Spanish, indicating its traditional use
in the treatment of poisoning and venomous bites.
The herb was employed in Mayan and Aztec
medicine for a variety of purposes, including as
a poultice to draw pus.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Contrayerva
rhizome is considered aromatic, stimulant, and
sweat-inducing. Occasionally used in the early
stages of serious fevers such as typhoid, it is also
given for gastrointestinal problems such as
diarrhea and dysentery. There is no scientific
substantiation of its reputation as an antidote.
Related Species D. convexa, native to Zaire, is
used as a wound healer; D. klainei is used in tropical
Africa as a gargle.

Drosera rotundifolia
(Droseraceae)

Sundew

Description Evergreen, insectivorous perennial
growing to 6 in (15 cm). Has small white flowers.
The hinged, spoon-shaped leaves edged with spines
secrete a sticky fluid (“sundew”), which traps
insects. They are digested when the leaf closes.

Sundew was once considered a refreshing herb because
it maintained its ‘dew" even in full sun.

Habitat & Cultivation Sundew grows in
Europe, Asia, and North America, and is found
in marshy ground at altitudes up to 5,900 ft
(1,800 m). Formerly it was picked while in flower
in summer. As it is now rare, it should not be
gathered from the wild.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Sundew contains naphthaquinones,
enzymes, flavonoids, and volatile oil. The
naphthaquinones are antimicrobial, antispasmodic,
and also cough-suppressing.

History & Folklore In the 16th and 17th
centuries, sundew was thought to be a remedy
for melancholy. In his Irish Herbal (1735), K’Eogh
advised using sundew to “eat away rotten sores.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Sundew is of
greatest value in the treatment of spasmodic chest
conditions such as whooping cough, bronchial
asthma, and asthma. In relaxing the muscles of the
respiratory tract, the plant eases breathing, relieves
wheezing, and lessens the spasms of whooping
cough. Commonly mixed with thyme in a syrup,
sundew is a helpful remedy for coughs in children.
The herb is also prescribed for gastric problems.

Echium vulgare (Boraginaceae)

Viper’s Bugloss

Description Abundantly hairy perennial growing
up to 3 ft (I m). Has narrow prickly leaves and pink
to violet clusters of flowers in dense spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
viper’s bugloss is commonly found on uncultivated
land, by roadsides, and in low-lying and coastal
regions. The flowering tops are gathered in
late summer.

Parts Used Flowering tops.

Constituents Viper’s bugloss contains
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, allantoin, alkannins, and
mucilage. In isolation, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are
toxic to the liver. The alkannins are antimicrobial
and allantoin helps wounds to heal.

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History & Folklore As its name suggests,
viper’s bugloss was once considered a preventative
and remedy for viper bite. In his 1656 The Art of
Simpling, herbalist William Coles described the
plant: “its stalks all to be speckled like a snake or
viper, and is a most singular remedy against poison
and the sting of scorpions’’ Four years earlier, the
English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper had praised its
action against “the biting of vipers.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses In many respects,
viper’s bugloss is similar to borage (Borago officinalis,
p. 179), in that both herbs have a sweat-inducing
and diuretic effect if taken internally. Viper’s bugloss
has also been taken to treat chest conditions, as its
mucilage soothes dry coughs and encourages
expectoration. The significant mucilage content in
viper’s bugloss has also proved helpful in treating
skin conditions. Prepared in a poultice or plaster,
it is an effective balm for boils and carbuncles. In
recent times, this herb has fallen out of use, due
partly to lack of interest in its medicinal potential,
and partly to its pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which in
isolation are toxic. Viper’s bugloss may be safely
used externally on unbroken skin.

©Caution Do not take internally.

ECU P T A PROSTRATA

Eclipta prostrata syn. E. alba
(Asteraceae)

Trailing Eclipta

Description Multi-branched annual growing
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves and
white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Trailing eclipta is
native to Africa, Asia, and Australia. It is now found
throughout the tropics, being particularly common
in India, China, and Queensland and New South
Wales in Australia. It is harvested in early autumn.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Trailing eclipta contains
triterpenoid saponins, including ecliptine and
alpha-terthienylmethanol, isoflavonoids,
and phytosterols.

Trailing eclipta is taken in India and China to stop premature
graying of the hair.

History & Folklore Trailing eclipta is first
mentioned in herbal literature in the Chinese
Tang Materia Medica of 659 ce. The herb contains a
black pigment that has been used to color the hair
in India, and mothers wash babies’ heads in a
decoction of the leaves to encourage hair growth.

It is also used as an ink for tattooing. The leaves
are also eaten as a vegetable.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Trailing eclipta has
remarkably similar uses in Ayurvedic and Chinese
herbal medicine. In both of these traditions, a
decoction is used to invigorate the liver, to prevent
premature graying of the hair, and to staunch
bleeding, especially from the uterus. In the Chinese
tradition, the herb is considered a yin tonic;
in Ayurvedic medicine it is thought to prevent
aging. In the Caribbean, the juice is sometimes
taken for asthma and bronchitis. Trailing eclipta
is also used there as a treatment for enlarged
glands, as well as for dizziness, vertigo, and
blurred vision.

Research Several laboratory experiments
have shown that eclipta regulates enzyme levels
within the liver and exerts a protective activity
on it.

Embelia ribes (Myrsinaceae)

Embelia

Description Climber with short, elliptical leaves,
white or white-green flowers, and round red or
black fruits.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India and
Southeast Asia, embelia grows in hilly regions.

The fruit is harvested when ripe.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Embelia contains naphthaquinones,
including embelin. Embelin stimulates the production
of estrogen and progesterone, and it may have a
contraceptive effect.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Embelia has
been used in Asia as a home remedy for expelling
worms. The herb is also diuretic and relieves
flatulence, and is used for indigestion, colic,
constipation, and debility.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Emblica officinalis
(Euphorbiaceae)

Indian Gooseberry

Description Deciduous tree with feathery
leaves, pale green flowers, and round pale green
or yellow fruit. Also known as amla.

Habitat & Cultivation Indian gooseberry
grows in China, India, and Southeast Asia and is
widely cultivated for its fruit.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Indian gooseberry contains
tannins, polyphenols, flavonoids, a fixed oil, and
a volatile oil.

History & Folklore The Indian gooseberry
features in a 7th-century Ayurvedic medical text.
The sage Muni Chyawan reputedly restored his
vitality with this fruit.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent
Indian gooseberry is given to allay the effects of
aging and to restore the organs. In Ayurvedic
medicine, the fruit juice is given to strengthen
the pancreas of diabetics. It is one of the three
herbs in the classic Ayurvedic herbal formula
known as “Triphala.”

Research Recent research suggests that Indian
gooseberry might have a remarkably wide range
of potential medicinal benefits. A study in Kerala,
India, showed that it may have protective activity
against liver cancer. Other studies indicate
potential anti-inflammatory and fever-inhibiting
effects, and a cholesterol-lowering action.

A study undertaken in Bombay concluded that
the fruit might prove useful in the treatment of
acute pancreatitis.

ERVATAMIA CORONARIA

Entada phaseoloides (Fabaceae)

Matchbox Bean

Description Woody vine with compound
leaves and clusters of pea-type flowers. Huge,
flat brown seed pods, containing black glossy
seeds, grow to 5 ft (1.5 m) in length, making
them the largest-growing legumes in the world.
Habitat & Cultivation Matchbox bean is
native to Australia and tropical regions of Asia
and Africa. The seeds are collected when the
pods are ripe.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents Matchbox bean contains
significant amounts of saponins.

History & Folklore The young leaves and
roasted bean are eaten as vegetables, whereas
fiber from the stems is made into nets, ropes, and
sails. Due to the plant’s high saponin content, it is
used as a shampoo.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Australian
Aborigines use the seeds to treat female
sterility and indigestion, and as a painkiller.

In the Philippines, juice made from the bark
is used to treat conjunctivitis.

Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae)

Horsetail,

Bottlebrush

Description Perennial plant with a yellowish
fruiting stem growing to 14 in (35 cm), followed
by a sterile segmented and toothed stem growing
to 2 ft (60 cm). The latter has whorls of needle-
shaped leaves.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
Europe, North Africa, northern Asia, and the
Americas, horsetail is a common plant, preferring
damp soil. The sterile stems are harvested in
summer and carefully dried, all discolored parts
being discarded.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Horsetail contains large amounts
of silicic acid and silicates (about 15%), flavonoids,
phenolic acids, alkaloids (including nicotine), and
sterols. Much of the therapeutic effectiveness of
this herb is due to its high silica content, a large
proportion of which is soluble and can be
absorbed. Silica supports the regeneration
of connective tissue.

History & Folklore Horsetail is a primitive
plant that is descended from huge trees that
lived during the Palaeozoic era (600-375 million
years ago). The herb’s high silica content makes it
abrasive, and in the past it was used to polish metal
and wood. Its common name, bottlebrush,
indicates another of its uses. Horsetail was also

tied to the tails of livestock to help them ward off
flies. It was long considered a wound-healing herb.
The English herbalist John Gerard, writing in 1597,
recounted: “Dioscorides saith, that the horse-taile
being stamped and laid to, doth perfectly cure
wounds, yea although the sinues be cut in sunder, as
Galen addeth.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses As its traditional
usage indicates, horsetail is an excellent clotting
agent. It staunches wounds, stops nosebleeds, and
reduces the coughing up of blood. In addition,
horsetail has an astringent effect on the
genitourinary system, proving especially valuable
where there is bleeding within the urinary tract,
and in cases of cystitis, urethritis, and prostate
disease. Horsetail helps to speed the repair of
damaged connective tissue, improving its strength
and elasticity. The herb is also prescribed to treat
problems related to rheumatic and arthritic
problems, for chest ailments (such as emphysema),
for chronic swelling of the legs, and for various
other conditions. A decoction of the herb’s aerial
parts added to a bath benefits slow-healing sprains
and fractures, as well as
certain irritable skin
conditions such
as eczema.

Horsetail staunches bleeding,
and is astringent and diuretic.

Cautions Horsetail breaks down vitamin B,
(thiamine) and should generally be taken long
term only in tandem with a B vitamin supplement.

Eriodictyon califomicum
(Hydrophyllaceae)

Yerba Santa

Description Sticky evergreen shrub growing
to 8 ft (2.5 m). Its narrow lance-shaped leaves are
shiny green on the upper side and hairy white
underneath. Trumpet-shaped white or blue
flowers grow in clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to California
and Oregon in the U.S., and northern Mexico,
yerba santa flourishes on dry mountain slopes.

It grows at altitudes of up to 3,900 ft (1,200 m).

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Yerba santa contains a volatile
oil, flavonoids (including eriodictyol), and resin.
History & Folklore The name yerbo santa
(holy weed) was given to this plant by Spanish
colonists who learned of its medicinal virtues
from Native Americans. Traditionally, the leaves
were infused and taken for coughs, colds, sore
throats, mucus, and asthma. The infusion was
also used as a wash to ease fever, and the mashed
leaves were applied as a poultice to treat sores.
Medicinal Actions & Uses An aromatic
herb with a pleasant sweet taste, yerba santa is
a valuable expectorant that can be used to treat
tracheitis, bronchitis, and asthma, and similar
respiratory tract ailments.

Ervatamia coronaria (Apocynaceae)

Grape Jasmine,

East Indian Rosebay

Description Perennial shrub growing to 6 Vi ft
(2 m). Has dark green, elliptical leaves and
strongly perfumed white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Grape jasmine is
grown in India, Malaysia, and Indonesia.

Parts Used Root, leaves, latex.

Constituents Grape jasmine contains alkaloids
and resins.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Ayurvedic
medicine, the root and the latex are used to
expel worms. The root is also chewed to relieve
toothache. The latex is used to treat cataracts
(especially in the early stages), eye inflammations,
and poor eyesight. The leaf juice makes a soothing
treatment for skin irritations and wounds.

O Caution Use grape jasmine only under
professional supervision.

205

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

E RY N GIU M M A RIT I M U M

Eryngium maritimum (Apiaceae)

Sea Holly,

Eryngo

Erythraea centaurium
(Gentianaceae)

Centaury

Description Biennial herb growing to 916. in
(24 cm) with a basal rosette of leaves and
5-petaled pink flowers in clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and southwestern Asia, centaury is now found in
temperate regions throughout the world. The plant
is harvested in summer when just about to flower.
Parts used Aerial parts.

Constituents Centaury contains many bitter
constituents, including secoiridoids, also found in
gentian (Gentiona lutea, p. 99).

History & Folklore In classical myth, the
centaur Chiron used this herb to treat a poisoned
arrow wound.

Medicinal Actions & Uses One of the most
useful bitter herbs, centaury has a relatively mild
bitter action, stimulating appetite as well as digestive
secretions from the salivary glands, stomach,
intestines, and gallbladder. With increased
digestive juices, food is processed and
broken down more effectively, leading
to better absorption of nutrients. For
best results, centaury should be taken
over several weeks. The preparation
should be slowly sipped so that the
components (detectable at a dilution of
up to 1:3,500) can stimulate reflex activity
throughout the upper digestive tract.
Self-help Uses Weak digestion, p. 306; Gas &
bloating, p. 306.

Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)

Description Evergreen perennial growing
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has spiny silver leaves, and tiny
flowers in summer.

Habitat Sea holly is found in coastal areas
of Europe, preferring sandy soils. The root is
unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Sea holly contains saponins,
coumarins, flavonoids, and plant acids.

Sea holly has distinctive silver
leaves and is often seen in
coastal areas of Europe.

206

History & Folklore In 17th-century England,
sea holly root was candied and eaten as a
sweetmeat. It was also consumed as a means of
preventing scurvy. In his Irish Herbal (1735), K’Eogh
states that the herb “provokes urination and
menstruation, encourages flatulence, and removes
obstructions of the liver, kidneys, and bladder.” In
K’Eogh’s time, sea holly was a popular medicinal
herb, and was considered helpful in the treatment
of a wide array of neurological conditions, including
paralysis and convulsions.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In contemporary
European herbal medicine, sea holly is used as a
diuretic. It is prescribed as a treatment for cystitis
and urethritis, and taken as a means to alleviate
kidney stones. It is unlikely that the herb actually
dissolves established stones, but it probably helps
retard their formation. Sea holly is also used
to treat enlargement or inflammation of the
prostate gland, and may be of benefit in treating
chest problems.

Indian Coral Tree,

Dadap (Hindi)

Description Deciduous tree growing to 59 ft
(18 m). Has prickly stems, leaves with triangular
leaflets, and pea-like red flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Indian coral tree
grows in deciduous forests throughout much
of the Indian subcontinent.

Parts Used Bark, leaves.

Constituents Indian coral tree contains
alkaloids, isoflavonoids, triterpenoids, and lectins.
The alkaloids are anti-inflammatory and analgesic,
and the isoflavonoids display antibacterial activity.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Ayurvedic
medicine, Indian coral tree is used to treat
inflammatory conditions, period pain, and
problems related to eating and digestion, including
anorexia, flatulence, colic, and worms. The bark is
used to treat skin problems and fever. A paste
made from the leaves is applied to heal wounds.

Erythronium americanum
(Liliaceae)

Trout Lily

Description Perennial growing to 10 in (25 cm)
from a small, bulblike corm. Has two oblong leaves
mottled with purple and a large, bright yellow
lily flower.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, trout lily is found mainly in the east,
from New Brunswick to Florida. It prefers damp
woodland and open ground. The leaves are
gathered in summer.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Very little is known about
the constituents of this plant. It contains alpha-
methylenebutyrolactone.

History & Folklore Trout lily was little used
by Native Americans. European settlers considered
its medicinal properties to be similar to those of
meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale, p. 193).
Trout lily was listed in the Pharmacopoeia of the
United States from I 820 to 1863 as a treatment
for gout.

Medicinal Actions & Uses An infusion of
the leaves is taken for skin problems such as ulcers
and tumors, and for enlarged glands. The leaves
(or the whole plant) may also be applied as a
poultice for skin conditions. The fresh leaves are
strongly emetic.

O Caution Take trout lily only under
professional supervision.

Erythroxylum coca
(Erythroxylaceae)

Coca

Description Evergreen shrub growing to
10 ft (3 m). Has alternate oval leaves, small white
flowers, and small red berries that each contain
a single seed.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Peru and
Bolivia, coca grows in high-rainfall areas of the
eastern Andes to altitudes of 4,900 ft (1,500 m).

It is mostly cultivated for the illegal market. The
leaves are picked when they begin to curl.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Coca contains cocaine and
various other alkaloids, a volatile oil, flavonoids,
vitamins A and B 2 , and minerals. The plant’s
stimulant and anesthetic action is due largely
to cocaine.

History & Folklore The indigenous peoples
of the Andes carry pouches containing coca leaves
and lime, which they chew throughout the day.
Early European travelers noted that individuals
chewing coca never had tooth or gum problems,

EUCOMMIA U L M 0 I D E S

and local folk medicine traditionally considered the
plant a treatment for toothache. Coca leaf extract
is still used as a flavoring for cola drinks—but
cocaine has long been banned from the formulas.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Bolivia and
Peru, coca leaves play an important part in the
culture and herbal medicine of the indigenous
Aymara and Quechua peoples. High altitudes,
cold, and an impoverished diet place great physical
demands on the population. Coca leaves, chewed
with lime or ashes, release small amounts of the
active constituents, which act as atonic and help
block the effects of cold, exhaustion, and poor
nutrition. Coca leaves are also used in South
American herbal medicine to treat nausea,
vomiting, and asthma, and have been used to
speed convalescence. Cocaine extracted from
coca leaves is used legally in conventional medicine
as a local anesthetic. It is also taken illegally as a
narcotic, stimulant drug. As an isolated chemical,
cocaine is extremely addictive.

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Coca is subject to legal restrictions
in most countries.

Coca is cultivated in the Andes and chewed as a tonic to help
counter the effects of cold.

Eschscholzia californica
(Papaveraceae)

California Poppy

Description Annual or perennial growing to
2 ft (60 cm). California poppy has finely cut leaves
and bright orange, yellow, pink, or red flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation California poppy
is native to western North America. Widely
cultivated as a garden plant, it prefers sandy soils.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents California poppy contains iso¬
quinoline alkaloids (including protopine, crypto¬
pine, and chelidonine) and flavone glycosides.

History & Folklore Native American
peoples were known to use the sap of California
poppy for its pain-killing properties, particularly
for toothache. The leaves were also eaten as a
vegetable. Early settlers used California poppy
for sleep problems, especially in children, and for
whooping cough. It is California’s state flower.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Though the
California poppy is a close relation of the opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum, p. 244), it has a
significantly different effect on the central
nervous system. California poppy is not a
narcotic. In fact, ratherthan disorienting the user,
it actually tends to normalize psychological
function. California poppy’s gently antispasmodic,
sedative, and analgesic effects make it a valuable
herbal medicine for treating physical and
psychological problems in children. The herb
may prove beneficial in attempts to overcome
nervous tension and anxiety, bedwetting, and
difficulty in sleeping.

Research A French study confirmed the
traditional usage of California poppy by showing
that extracts were sedative, reduced anxiety levels,
and were non-toxic.

Eucalyptus smithii (Myrtaceae)

Gully Gum

Description Aromatic evergreen tree growing
to 165 ft (50 m).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Australia,
eucalyptus now grows in temperate and subtropical
zones across the globe. It prefers moist soil, and so
is found in swamps, gullies, and at the foot of slopes.
Part Used Essential oil.

Constituents The volatile oil contains about
70% eucalyptol (1,8-cineole), as well as pinene,
limonene, alpha-terpineol, and linalool. While it is
similar to the oils of related species, this oil appears
to be better tolerated by the skin.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Eucalpytus smithii
oil is an antiseptic and decongestant, and is used
for inhalations as well as aromatherapy massages.
See eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, p. 96) for
further details.

Cautions Though less toxic than the oils of other
eucalyptus species, E. smithii essential oil should be
used with care. Follow the label instructions, or take
on professional advice.

Eucommia ulmoides
(Eucommiaceae)

Eucommia Bark,

Du Zhong (Chinese)

Description Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m). Has elliptical leaves, with male flowers in
loose clusters and solitary female flowers in the
leaf axils.

Habitat & Cultivation Eucommia bark grows
in temperate zones in China. It is cultivated, but
only in small amounts.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Eucommia bark contains gutta¬
percha, alkaloids, flavonoids, iridoids and other
glycosides, and phenolic compounds.

History & Folklore The herb is mentioned
in the Chinese herbal, the Divine Husbandman’s
Classic ( Shen’nong Bencaojing), which was written
in the I st century ce.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Eucommia bark
is considered an excellent tonic for the liver and
kidneys. Eucommia bark is said to “tonify the yang,”
to improve the circulation, and also to prevent
miscarriage in women who are weak or suffering
from back pain.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

EUONYMUS ATROPURPUREUS

208

Research Much interest has been aroused
by eucommia bark’s ability to reduce high blood
pressure, which it is thought to do by increasing
nitrous oxide levels within the arteries. In a clinical
trial in China involving I 19 people, 46% of those
treated with the herb showed a significant blood
pressure reduction. However, eucommia bark
appears to have little effect in cases of severe
hypertension. Recent studies indicate that eucommia
bark is an antioxidant and may help to prevent the
onset of type 2 diabetes. A small clinical trial in
Japan published in 1996 concluded that an infusion
of eucommia bark reduced the body’s exposure
to mutagen-forming compounds naturally present
within the diet.

Eupatorium cannabinum
(Asteraceae)

Hemp Agrimony

Description Perennial growing to a height of
5 ft (1.5 m). Has a red stem, downy leaves, and
dense bunches of pink to mauve florets.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
hemp agrimony is now also found in western Asia
and North Africa. It grows in damp woods, ditches,
marshes, and in open areas, and is gathered when
in flower in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Hemp agrimony contains a volatile
oil (with alpha-terpinene, p-cymene, thymol and
an azulene), sesquiterpene lactones (especially
eupatoriopicrin), flavonoids, pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
and polysaccharides. P-cymene is antiviral, while
eupatoriopicrin has anti-cancer properties and
inhibits cellular growth. The polysaccharides
stimulate the immune system. In isolation, the
pyrrolizidine alkaloids are toxic to the liver.
History & Folklore Hemp agrimony was
known to Avicenna (980-1037 ce) and other
practitioners of Arabian medicine in the early
Middle Ages.

Euonymus atropurpureus
(Celastraceae)

Wahoo Bark

Description Deciduous tree growing to
26 ft (8 m). Has smooth branches, serrated
elliptical leaves, clusters of purple flowers,
and 4-lobed scarlet fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
North America, wahoo bark thrives in damp
woods and close to water. The bark is
gathered in autumn.

Parts Used Stem bark, root bark.
Constituents Wahoo bark contains
cardenolides (cardiac glycosides) similar
to digitoxin, asparagine, sterols, and tannins.
History & Folklore The Sioux, Cree, and
other Native American peoples used wahoo
bark in various ways, for example as an eye
lotion, as a poultice for facial sores, and
for gynecological conditions. Native
Americans introduced the plant to early
European settlers, and it became very
popular in North America as well as in
Britain in the 19th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wahoo
bark is considered a gallbladder
remedy with laxative and diuretic
properties. It is prescribed for
biliousness and liver problems, as well as for
skin conditions such as eczema (which may
result from poor liver and gallbladder function)
and for constipation. In the past, it was often
used in combination with herbs such as
gentian ( Gentiana lutea, p. 99) as a fever
remedy, especially if the liver was under
stress. Following the discovery that it
contains cardiac glycosides, wahoo bark
has been given for heart conditions.

O Cautions Wahoo bark is toxic. Use only
under professional supervision. Do not take
during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Hemp agrimony was

formerly taken as a
spring tonic in Holland.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Hemp agrimony
has been employed chiefly as a detoxifying herb
for fever, colds, flu, and other acute viral conditions.
The root is laxative and diuretic, and the whole
herb is considered to be tonic. Recently, hemp
agrimony has found use as an immunostimulant,
helping to maintain resistance to acute viral and
other infections.

Related Species See also boneset
(E. perfoliatum, following entry ) and gravel root
(E. purpureum, subsequent entry).

O Caution In view of hemp agrimony’s
pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, take only under
professional supervision.

Eupatorium perfoliatum
(Asteraceae)

Boneset

Description Erect perennial growing to
5 ft (1.5 m). Has tapering lance-shaped leaves
and many white or purple florets.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
North America, boneset is found in meadows
and marshland. It is gathered when in flower
in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Boneset contains sesquiterpene
lactones (including eupafolin), polysaccharides,
flavonoids, diterpenes, sterols, and volatile oil. The
sesquiterpene lactones and polysaccharides are
significant immunostimulants.

History & Folklore Native American people
used boneset to make an infusion for treating
colds, fever, and arthritic and rheumatic pain.
European settlers learned of the plant’s benefits,
and by the 18th and 19th centuries it was regarded
as a virtual cure-all. Boneset’s common name
derives from its ability to treat “break-bone fever.”
Commonly used to treat malaria, constituents
within boneset are now known to have
antiprotozoal activity.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A hot infusion
of boneset will bring relief to symptoms of the
common cold. The plant stimulates resistance to
viral and bacterial infections, and reduces fever by
encouraging sweating. Boneset also loosens phlegm
and promotes its removal through coughing, and it
has atonic and laxative effect. It has been taken for
rheumatic illness, skin conditions, and worms.
Related Species Wild horehound (E.
teucrifolium) was used as a substitute for boneset.

E. occidentale was used by the Zuni of the south¬
western U.S. to treat rheumatism. See also
hemp agrimony (E. cannabinum, preceding entry)
and gravel root (E. purpureum, following entry).
Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with mucus,
p. 300; Colds, flu & fevers, p. 3 I I; High fever, p. 3 I I.

EUPHRASIA SPP.

Eupatorium purpureum
(Asteraceae)

Gravel Root,

Joe Pye Weed

Description Erect perennial growing to 5 ft
(1.5 m). Has whorls of pointed oblong leaves and
clusters of purple-pink florets.

Habitat & Cultivation Gravel root is native
to eastern North America. The root is unearthed
in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Gravel root contains a volatile oil,
flavonoids, and resin.

History & Folklore The plant’s alternative
name, Joe Pye weed, is in honor of the Native
American said to have used it to cure New
Englanders of typhus. Native Americans used
the herb as a diuretic and as a
remedy for genitourinary
conditions. The root was
listed in the Pharmacopoeia
of the United States from
1820 to 1842.

Gravel root is

especially helpful for
urinary tract problems.

Medicinal Actions & Uses As its common
name indicates, gravel root is a valuable herb for
urinarytract problems. It helps to prevent the
formation of kidney and bladder stones and may
diminish existing stones. Gravel root is also useful
for cystitis, urethritis, prostate enlargement (and
other forms of obstruction), and for rheumatism
and gout. The root is thought to help the latter
two conditions by increasing the removal of waste
by the kidneys.

Related Species E. maculatum, native to
eastern North America, is used to treat kidney and
urinary problems. See also E. cannabinum, p. 208,
and E. perfoliatum, preceding entry.

Euphorbia hirta syn. E. pilulifera
(Euphorbiaceae)

Pill-bearing Spurge,

Asthma Plant

Description Erect annual or perennial plant
growing to 20 in (50 cm), with pointed oval leaves
and clusters of small flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India and
Australia, pill-bearing spurge is now widespread
throughout the tropics. The aerial parts of the
plant are gathered when it is in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Pill-bearing spurge is recommended as a treatment
for asthma.

Constituents Pill-bearing spurge contains
flavonoids, terpenoids, alkanes, phenolic acids,
shikimic acid, and choline. The latter two
constituents may be partly responsible for
the antispasmodic action of this plant.

History & Folklore As its name suggests, this
plant was traditionally used in Asia to treat asthma.
Medicinal Actions & Uses A specific
treatment for bronchial asthma, pill-bearing spurge
relaxes the bronchial tubes and eases breathing.
Mildly sedative and expectorant, it is also taken for
bronchitis and other respiratory tract conditions. It is
most often used along with other anti-asthmatic
herbs, notably gum plant ( Grindelia camporum,
p. 218) and lobelia ( Lobelia inflata, p. I 10). In the
Anglo-American tradition, pill-bearing spurge is
taken to treat intestinal amebiasis.

Related Species The Cherokee used E. maculata
to treat sore nipples and skin disorders. Many
other North American Euphorbia species were
used for constipation. A decoction of E. land folia,
native to the West Indies, is used to stimulate
breast-milk production. E. atoto is used in Malaysia
and Indochina to induce a delayed period and as
an abortifacient. Many species of Euphorbia are
used as arrow poisons.

O Caution Take pill-bearing spurge only under
professional supervision.

Euphorbia pekinensis
(Euphorbiaceae)

Da Ji

Description Erect annual or perennial
plant with oblong leaves and dense clusters
of small flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,
da ji is cultivated mainly in the eastern and
central provinces. The root is unearthed in
early spring.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Da ji contains euphorbon.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Do ji is classified
as atoxic herb in Chinese herbal medicine, and
therefore it is prescribed only for relatively serious
illnesses. It is taken as a cathartic to purge excess
fluid in conditions such as pleurisy and ascites
(excess fluid in the abdomen), and for the
treatment of kidney problems, especially nephritis.
Do ji is applied externally to inflamed sores to
reduce swelling.

Research Research in China indicates that do ji
is therapeutically useful in the treatment of ascites
and nephritis; however, it produces significant
side effects.

Related Species E. kansui is similar to do ji
but has a stronger cathartic action. In Chinese
herbal medicine it is only given to people with
strong constitutions.

O Caution Do ji is a toxic plant. Take only under
professional supervision.

Euphrasia spp. (Scrophulariaceae)

Eyebright

Description Creeping semi-parasitic annual
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has tiny oval leaves and
small scallop-edged white flowers with yellow spots
and a black center, somewhat resembling an eye.
Habitat & Cultivation Common in Europe,
eyebright thrives in meadows and open grassland.

It is gathered in summer when in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Eyebright contains iridoid
glycosides (including aucubin), flavonoids, tannins,
lignans, and phenolic acids. Aucubin has antibac¬
terial, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic activity.
History & Folklore Eyebright’s use for eye
problems was due in part to the Doctrine of
Signatures, an ancient belief that the way that a
plant looks—its “sign”—indicates the ailments
for which it should be used as a medicine.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Eyebright relieves
inflammation and tightens mucous membranes
and finds specific use in the treatment of
conjunctivitis and blepharitis. Its ability to counter
mucus means that it is often used for infectious

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

EUTERPE OLERACEA

and allergic conditions affecting the eyes, middle
ear, sinuses, and nasal passages. Eyebright counters
liquid mucus, but it should be used guardedly for
dry and stuffy congestion, which tends to be made
worse by the plant’s astringency.

Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with mucus,
p. 300; Conjunctivitis, p. 3 10; Prevention of
nosebleeds, p. 3 10.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Less a medicine
than a nourishing addition to the diet, acai supports
vitality and a healthy heart and circulation. Acai
juice has much in common with blueberry and
pomegranate ( Punica gronotum, p. 259) juices—
all helping to sustain good health. The Acai palm is
the main source of palm hearts, which are eaten
worldwide as a vegetable.

Euterpe oleracea (Arecaceae)

Acai

210

Description A rainforest palm reaching 80 ft
(25 m), with 4-8 slender trunks and pinnate leaves
up to 10 ft (3 m) long. The berries (about the size
of a grape) hang down in large bunches.

Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout
much of Central America and northern South
America, the acai palm is widely grown for its
berries and palm hearts.

Parts Used Drupe (the “berries”), seed, root,
palm heart.

Constituents The berries contain high
levels of polyphenols, especially anthocyanins
and proanthocyanidins (as found in other dark
purple berries, such as blueberry). They are
strong antioxidants and anti-inflammatories.
History & Folklore Acai berries and their juice
are a nutritious part of many Brazilians’ diet. In Brazil
and Peru, the crushed seeds (which make up 80% of
the berry) are used to treat fever. Traditionally, the
essence of the root is extracted to treat conditions
such as hepatitis and enlarged prostate.

Evodia rutaecarpa (Rutaceae)

Evodia,

Wu Zhu Yu (Chinese)

Description Deciduous tree growing to 33 ft
(10 m). Has compound leaves, clusters of white
flowers, and greenish-red fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,
Tibet, and the eastern Himalayas, evodia is
cultivated in China. The partially ripe fruit
is gathered in late summer.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Evodia contains the alkaloids
evodine, evodiamine, and rutaecarpine.

History & Folklore Evodia is listed in the
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing )
of the I st century ce.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Evodia has a
marked warming effect on the body, helping to
relieve headaches and a wide range of digestive
problems. In Chinese herbal medicine, evodia is
used mainly for abdominal pains, vomiting, diarrhea,
headaches, and a weak pulse.

Research Chinese studies indicate that
evodia is analgesic and reduces blood pressure.

O Caution Use evodia only under
professional supervision.

Fagopyrum esculentum
(Polygonaceae)

Buckwheat

Description Annual growing to about 20 in
(50 cm). Has arrow-shaped leaves and clusters of
white or pink 5-petaled flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Buckwheat is native
to central and northern Asia, and is cultivated
extensively in temperate regions, especially the
U.S. It is harvested in summer.

Parts Used Leaves, flowers.

Constituents Buckwheat contains bioflavonoids,
especially rutin, which is strongly antioxidant. Rutin
strengthens the inner lining of blood vessels.
History & Folklore Buckwheat’s French name,
ble Sarrasin, alludes to its ancient Middle Eastern
origins. The grain was either introduced to Europe

Eyebright, as its

name suggests,
helps eye problems.

during the Crusades (I Ith and 12th centuries),
or it was brought to Spain by the Arabs several
centuries earlier.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Used for a wide
range of circulatory problems, buckwheat is best
taken as a tea or tablet, accompanied by vitamin C
or lemon juice (Citrus limon, p. 85) to aid absorption.
Buckwheat is used particularly to treat fragile
capillaries (seen as small bruises with no apparent
cause), but also helps strengthen varicose veins and
heal chilblains. Often combined with linden flowers
(7/7/o spp., p. 276), buckwheat is a specific treatment
for hemorrhage into the retina. Buckwheat is also
commonly taken in combination with other herbs
for high blood pressure.

Related Species Recent research has shown
that the Chinese F. dibotrys and F. cymosum are
immunostimulant. They are prescribed for
chronic bronchitis, inflamed gallbladder, and
pulmonary abscesses.

Cautions Interacts with blood-thinning
medication. Do not take as a medicine if taking
prescribed anticoagulants.

Self-help Uses High blood pressure &
arteriosclerosis, p. 301; Poor circulation & high
blood pressure, p. 3 19.

Feronia limonia (Rutaceae)

Wood Apple

Description A spiny tree growing to 30 ft
(9 m), it has feathery leaves, red flowers, and
round whitish fruit the size of oranges.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
India, wood apple is cultivated in tropical Asia.
Parts Used Fruit, leaves.

Constituents The fruit contains fruit acids,
vitamins, and minerals. The leaves contain tannins
and a volatile oil.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wood apple
fruit is used mainly to stimulate the digestive
system. In India, the fruit forms part of a paste
applied to tone the breasts. The astringent leaves
are used to treat indigestion, flatulence, diarrhea,
dysentery (particularly in children), and
hemorrhoids. It is traditionally thought to act
as a male contraceptive, although there is limited
research to support this.

Ferula assa-foetida (Apiaceae)

Asafoetida,

Devil’s Dung

Description Perennial plant growing to about
6% ft (2 m). Has a fleshy taproot, hollow stem,
compound leaves, and many white flowers in umbels.

FICUS CARICA

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Iran,
Afghanistan, and Pakistan, asafoetida produces a
gum obtained in summer from 4-year-old plants.
The stems are cut off and successive slices are
made through the roots. The gum wells up and
is collected after it has hardened.

Part Used Oleo-gum-resin.

Constituents Asafoetida exudate contains
6-17% volatile oil, as well as resin and gum. The
volatile oil contains disulphides (about 58%),
which have an expectorant action. The oil also
settles the digestion. Asafoetida resin contains
sesquiterpenoid coumarins, including foetidin.
History & Folklore In the 4th century
bce, Choroko Samhita, a Hindu medical treatise,
proclaimed asafoetida the best remedy for
clearing gas and bloating. The name devil’s
dung notwithstanding, the plant is thought to
have been the most popular spice in ancient
Rome. Asafoetida is as persistent in aroma as
garlic ( Allium sativum, p. 59), and is still used
as a flavoring.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Middle Eastern
and Indian herbal medicine, asafoetida is used for
simple digestive problems such as gas, bloating,
indigestion, and constipation. Asafoetida’s volatile
oil, like that of garlic, has components that leave
the body via the respiratory system and aid the
coughing up of congested mucus. Asafoetida
is taken (usually in tablet form) for bronchitis,
bronchial asthma, whooping cough, and other
chest problems. Asafoetida also lowers blood
pressure and thins the blood. The herb has a
reputation for helping in neurotic states.

Related Species F. silphion was used in ancient
Rome as a contraceptive. It was overharvested and
died out in about 300 ce. F. persica is used in the
Middle East for rheumatic problems and backache.
The central Asian F. sumbul is used as a nerve tonic.
F. jaeschkeana has recently been investigated as a
potential contraceptive. See also F. gummosa
(following entry).

Caution While safe in adults, asafoetida may be
harmful to young babies.

Ferula gummosa syn. F. galbaniflua
(Apiaceae)

Galbanum

Description Perennial with a smooth, hollow
stem, finely toothed compound leaves, and umbels
of small white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to central
Asia, galbanum produces a gum that is obtained
when stems are cut off and successive slices are
made through the roots. Gum wells to the surface
and is collected after it has hardened.

Part Used Oleo-gum-resin.

Constituents Galbanum exudate contains
a volatile oil, resins, gums, as well as a
coumarin (umbelliferone).

History & Folklore Galbanum has been used
medicinally for centuries.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Galbanum is a
digestive stimulant and antispasmodic, reducing
flatulence, cramps, and colic. It is also
expectorant. Applied as an ointment, the gum
may help heal wounds.

Related Species See asafoetida (F. assa-foetida,
preceding entry).

Self-help Use Acidity & indigestion, p. 307.

Ficus benghalensis (Moraceae)

hemorrhoids, warts, and aching joints. The fruit is
laxative and the roots are chewed to prevent gum
disease. The bark is used in Ayurvedic medicine
for diabetes.

Research In laboratory studies an extract of the
leaves was shown to counter diarrhea. Glycosides
in banyan have been shown to have an antidiabetic
activity, lowering blood-sugar levels.

Related Species See fig (F. carica, following entry).
Caution The latex is toxic and should not be
taken internally.

Ficus carica (Moraceae)

Fig

Banyan Tree

Description Tree growing to 65 ft (20 m) with
oval leaves, fig-type fruit, and roots that grow into
the ground from branches.

Habitat & Cultivation Growing wild in India
and Pakistan, the banyan tree is also cultivated
across the Indian subcontinent.

Parts Used Fruit, bark, leaves, latex,
aerial roots.

Constituents Banyan tree contains
ketones, sterols, ficusin, and bergaptin.

History & Folklore The banyan tree is
sacred to Hindus and is frequently found in
the proximity of Hindu temples. The god Shiva
is often shown sitting peacefully in the shade of
a banyan tree. The banyan tree is the national
tree of India.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent
leaves and bark of the tree are employed to relieve
diarrhea and dysentery and to reduce bleeding. As
with other Ficus species, the latex is applied to

Description Deciduous tree growing to 13 ft
(4 m). Has large leaves and fleshy receptacles that
ripen into purple-brown, pear-shaped fruit.

Fig's pulpy flesh is
emollient and soothing
to inflamed skin.

Banyan tree leaves are astringent and are used to tighten
mucous membranes.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
Asia, fig now grows wild and is cultivated in many
temperate and subtropical regions. Fruit is
harvested in summer.

Parts Used Fruit, latex.

Constituents Figs contain around 50% fruit
sugars (mainly glucose), flavonoids, vitamins,
and enzymes.

History & Folklore The fig leaf was used
by Adam and Eve to hide their nakedness in the
Garden of Eden. There are many other references
to the plant in the Old Testament, mainly to the
sweetness of the fruit and to its use as a medicine.
Spartan athletes in Ancient Greece were said to
eat figs in order to improve their performance.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The fruit sugars
within the fig (especially the dried fruit) have a
pronounced but gentle laxative effect; syrup of figs
is still a remedy for mild constipation. The fruit’s

21

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FICUS R E L I G I 0 S A

emollient pulp helps relieve pain and inflammation,
and it has been used to treat tumors, swellings, and
gum abscesses—-the fruit often being roasted
before application. Figs are also mildly expectorant
and, when used with herbs such as elecampane
(Inula helenium, p. 107), are helpful in treating dry
and irritable coughs and bronchitis. The milky latex
from leaves and stems is reputed to be analgesic,
and has long been used to treat warts, insect bites,
and stings.

Related Species Research published in 1999
showed that an extract of leaves of F. racemosa,
a native of northern India, had a marked
protective activity on the liver in rats. The juice
and powdered bark of the Central American
F. cotinifolia are applied to wounds and bruises.

F. indica is used in Ayurvedic medicine as atonic,
diuretic, and treatment for gonorrhea. F. lacor
is used in Chinese herbal medicine to induce
sweating, while F. retusa, which is native to China,
Indonesia, and Australia, is used in the Chinese
tradition to treat toothache and tooth decay. See
also banyan tree (F. benghalensis, preceding entry )
and peepal (F. religiosa, following entry).

Cautions The latex is toxic and should not be
used internally. Applied to the skin, it may cause
an allergic reaction to sunlight.

212

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Peepal

Description Tree growing to around 26 ft (8 m)
with large, leathery, heart-shaped leaves and purple
fruit growing in pairs.

Habitat & Cultivation Peepal grows in
northern and central India, in forests, and alongside
water. It is also widely cultivated throughout the
subcontinent and southern Asia. The fruit is
gathered when ripe.

Parts Used Fruit, leaves, bark, latex.
Constituents The fruit contains fruit sugars,
flavonoids, and enzymes.

History & Folklore Sacred to Hindus and
Buddhists, the peepal is the tree under which the
Buddha attained enlightenment. It is a long-living
tree; a peepal in Sri Lanka is thought to be over
2,000 years old.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Peepal s uses
are similar to those of the banyan (F. benghalensis,
p. 21 I). Its astringent bark and leaves are taken for
diarrhea and dysentery, whereas the leaves alone
are used for constipation. The leaves are applied
with ghee (clarified butter) as a poultice to boils
and to swollen salivary glands in mumps. The
powdered fruit may be taken for asthma and
the latex is used to treat warts.

Related Species See preceding entries, fig
(F. carica) and banyan tree (F. benghalensis ).

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Fennel

Description Aromatic perennial growing to
about 5 ft (1.5 m). Has dark green, feathery leaves,
umbels of yellow flowers, and small, ridged, oval¬
shaped seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean region, fennel is now cultivated in
temperate regions around the world. The seeds
are gathered in autumn.

Parts Used Seeds, essential oil.

Constituents “Sweet” fennel seeds contain
about 8% volatile oil (about 80% anethole, plus
fenchone and methylchavicol), flavonoids,
coumarins (including bergapten), and sterols.

The volatile oil relieves gas and is antispasmodic.
“Bitter” fennel seeds contain significantly higher
levels of fenchone.

History & Folklore Dioscorides, in the I st
century ce, states that “the juice, when put into the
eye, aids vision, and into the ear, kills the worms
(i.e. bacteria) that develop there.”

Fennel has a long history of use as a remedy for ailments
of the digestive tract.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The primary use
of fennel seeds is to relieve bloating, but they also
settle stomach pain, stimulate the appetite, and
are diuretic and anti-inflammatory. Like anise
(Pimpinella anisum, p. 248) and caraway (Carum
carvi, p. 184), the seeds make an excellent infusion
for settling digestion and reducing abdominal
distension. The seeds help in the treatment of
kidney stones, and, combined with urinary
antiseptics such as uva-ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi,
p. 170), make an effective treatment for cystitis. An
infusion of the seeds may be taken as a gargle for
sore throats and as a mild expectorant. Fennel is
safe for children when taken at a low dose and,
as an infusion or syrup, can be given for colic and
painful teething in babies. Fennel increases breast-
milk production and the herb is still used as an

eyewash for sore eyes and conjunctivitis. The
seeds have a longstanding reputation as an
aid to weight loss and to longevity. Essential oil
from the sweet variety is used for its digestive
and relaxing properties. It also has estrogenic
activity and may prove helpful in relieving
menopausal symptoms.

Cautions Fennel seeds are potentially toxic; do
not exceed the recommended dose. Do not take
the essential oil internally.

Self-help Uses Acidity & indigestion, p. 307;
Morning sickness & nausea, p. 3 17; Stomach
spasm, p. 305; Gas & bloating, p. 306.

Forsythia suspensa (Oleaceae)

Weeping Forsythia,

□an Qiao (Chinese)

Description Deciduous shrub growing to
16 ft (5 m). Has toothed leaves, bright yellow
flowers, and woody fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China
and Japan, weeping forsythia is grown for its bright
yellow blossoms in temperate gardens all over the
world. The fruit is harvested in autumn, just before
it is fully ripe.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents The fruit contains flavonoids,
including rutin, lignans, glycosides, and forsythin.
Research suggests that forsythin is antimicrobial,
anti-emetic, and anti-inflammatory.

History & Folklore Weeping forsythia was
first listed in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic
(Shen’nong Bencaojing), written in the I st century
ce. Weeping forsythia features in a remedy for
infections devised in the 18th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A bitter-tasting,
pungent herb with antiseptic and antiviral activity,
weeping forsythia is used to treat infections such
as colds, flu, sore throats, and tonsillitis. In
traditional Chinese medicine, it is used to treat
a range of other conditions (including boils,
swollen glands, and skin infections). The American
herbal scientist James A. Duke recommends it be
taken as a warm tea, combined with honeysuckle
(Lonicera spp., p. 229) and lemon balm (Me//sso
ofpcinalis, p. I 13), at the onset of colds and similar
viral infections.

Caution Not advisable in pregnancy.

Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae)

Wild Strawberry

Description Low-growing perennial herb
spread by runners. Has 3-lobed leaves, white
flowers, and small red berries.

F U M A R I A OFFICINALIS

to “comfort fainting spirits.”

Habitat & Cultivation Wild strawberry is
native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia.
The leaves and fruit are gathered in early summer.
Parts Used Leaves, fruit.

Constituents The leaves contain flavonoids,
tannins, and a volatile oil. The fruit contains fruit acids
and a volatile oil with methyl salicylate and borneol.
History & Folklore Wild strawberry appears
to have been little used medicinally until the Middle
Ages. Writing in 1652, Nicholas Culpeper listed its
benefits: “the berries are excellent good to cool
the liver; the blood, and the spleen, or a hot
cholerick stomach ... the leaves and roots thereof
[are] also good to fasten loose teeth and to heal
spongy foul gums.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wild strawberry
leaves are mildly astringent and diuretic. The plant
is little used medicinally today, but it can be taken
to treat diarrhea and dysentery. The leaves were
used as a gargle for sore throats, and in a lotion
for minor burns and grazes. In Europe, the fruit
is considered to have cooling and diuretic
properties, and has been prescribed as part of
a diet in cases of tuberculosis, gout, arthritis,
and rheumatism.

Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae)

Ash

Description Deciduous tree growing to 130 ft
(40 m). Has pale grey bark, black conical leaf buds,
and bright green leaves with 7-13 oval leaflets.

Habitat & Cultivation Common in Europe,
ash thrives in lowland and moorland. The leaves
are gathered in summer, but the bark is gathered
in spring.

Parts Used Leaves, bark, seeds.

Constituents Ash leaves contain flavonoids,
tannins, mucilage, triterpenes, and iridoids.
History & Folklore The ash was the “world-
tree” of Norse mythology, its roots spreading to
the domain of the gods, and its branches extending
to the remotest corners of the universe. In Norse
myth, the first man was carved from a piece of ash
wood. In parts of Europe, ash bark was used as
a cost-free substitute for quinine in the home
treatment of malaria. Such use probably continued
in rural areas into the 20th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Ash bark is tonic
and astringent. Little used in herbal medicine today,
it is occasionally taken for fever. The leaves are also
astringent, and they have a laxative and diuretic
effect. They have been used as a mild substitute
for senna (Cassia senna, p. 75).

Related Species The bark of the American
white ash (F. americana ) has been used as a bitter
tonic and astringent. Several ash species exude a
nutritious sap, called “manna,” which is used as
a laxative for children. In particular, the manna ash
(F. ornus), which has antioxidant activity, has been
cultivated in southern Europe for its high yield of
manna sap.

Fucus vesiculosus (Fucaceae)

Bladderwrack,

Kelp

Description Brownish-green alga growing
to 3 ft (I m) in length. Has flat, usually forked,
fronds containing air bladders.

Habitat & Cultivation Bladderwrack is
native to the North Atlantic shores and western
Mediterranean, and is harvested all year.

Part Used Whole plant.

Constituents Bladderwrack contains polyphenols,
polysaccharides, and minerals, especially iodine
(up to 0.1 %). The polysaccharides are
immunostimulant. The iodine may stimulate the
thyroid gland.

History & Folklore Bladderwrack has been
employed as a fuel, as a winter feed for cattle, and
as a source of iodine and potash.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to its iodine
content, bladderwrack is taken as an antigoiter
remedy. The plant appears to raise the metabolic
rate by increasing hormone production by the
thyroid gland, though this increase may be limited
to poorly functioning thyroids. Bladderwrack is
reputedly helpful in rheumatic conditions.

Research In one clinical trial (Italy 1976), patients
taking bladderwrack lost much more weight than
the control group. In more recent German
research, the polyphenols and polysaccharides
appeared to have antiviral and anti-HIV activity.
Cautions Do not take if pregnant or
breastfeeding. If suffering from a thyroid illness or
taking insulin, take only under professional advice.

Fumaria officinalis (Fumariaceae)

Fumitory

Description Climbing annual growing to I ft
(30 cm). Has compound leaves and maroon-tipped
pink tubular flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
North Africa, fumitory also grows in Asia, North
America, and Australia.

Parts Used Flowering aerial parts.
Constituents Fumitory contains isoquinoline
alkaloids and flavonoids.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A notably
bitter-tasting herb, fumitory has a stimulant and
cleansing action on the liver and gallbladder,
and is principally used to treat chronic itchy skin
problems such as eczema. It is also diuretic and
mildly laxative.

Related Species Fumitory is related to
corydalis (Corydalis yanhusuo, p. 86), and
F. parviflora from central Asia. The latter, like
fumitory, is used as a detoxifying, laxative,
and diuretic herb.

Caution Fumitory is toxic in excessive doses.

Use only with professional advice.

Fumitory may be applied externally as a treatment

for eczema. 2 I

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

Galega officinalis (Fabaceae)

Goat’s Rue

Description Bushy perennial growing to about
3 ft (I m) in height. Goat’s rue has compound
leaves with lance-shaped leaflets and delicate pink
pea-type flowers on terminal spikes, and produces
red-brown seed pods in autumn.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Asia and
continental Europe, and naturalized in Britain, goat’s
rue grows in damp and low-lying areas. It is
harvested in summer.

Goafs rue was once taken to treat the plague.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Goat’s rue contains alkaloids
(including galegine), lectins, flavonoids, and tannins.
Galegine strongly reduces blood-sugar levels.

History & Folklore Formerly used as a
treatment for the plague, goat’s rue has been
widely cultivated as a cattle feed.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Today, goat’s rue
is chiefly used as an anti-diabetic herb, having the
ability to reduce blood-sugar levels. It is not a
substitute for conventional drugs, but can be
valuable in the early stages of type 2 diabetes and
is best used as an infusion. The herb has the effect
of increasing breast-milk production. It is also a
useful diuretic.

Caution Use as part of the treatment of
diabetes only under professional supervision.

214

Galipea officinalis

syn. G. cusparia (Rutaceae)

Angostura

Description Evergreen tree growing to
49 ft (15 m) with grey bark, shiny bright green
leaflets, and foul-smelling flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Angostura is native
to some Caribbean islands and to tropical South
America. The bark is gathered throughout the year.

GALEGA 0FFIG I NAL I S

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Angostura bark contains bitter
principles, quinoline alkaloids including cusparine,
and 1-2% volatile oil. The alkaloids have antimicrobial
activity against the tuberculosis bacillus.

History & Folklore Angostura is a traditional
tonic and fever remedy in South America, used
chiefly for digestive infections. Native Amazonians
also use the plant as a fish poison. Angostura has
been used as a source of “bitters,” although it is
unknown whether it is an ingredient of the cocktail
flavoring bearing its name as the drink’s
composition is a trade secret.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A strong bitter
with tonic properties, angostura stimulates
the stomach and digestive tract as a whole. It is
antispasmodic and is reported to act on the spinal
nerves, helping in paralytic conditions. Angostura is
typically given for weak digestion, and is considered
valuable as a remedy for diarrhea and dysentery.

In South America, it is sometimes used as a
substitute for cinchona (Cinchona spp., p. 80)
to control fevers.

O Caution Use under professional guidance only.

Galium aparine (Rubiaceae)

Cleavers,

Goose Grass

Description Straggling, square-stemmed
annual growing to a height of 4 ft (1.2 m) with
whorls of lance-shaped leaves, clusters of small
white flowers, and small, round, green fruit with
hooked prickles.

Habitat & Cultivation Common throughout
Europe and North America, cleavers is found
in many other temperate regions, including in
Australia. It grows prolifically in gardens and along
roadsides, and is gathered when just about to
flower in late spring.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Cleavers contains iridoids
(including asperuloside), polyphenolic acids,
anthraquinones (only in the root), alkanes,
flavonoids, and tannins. Asperuloside is a
mild laxative.

History & Folklore The name cleavers
refers to the plant’s ability to cling (or cleave)
to fur or clothing. Dioscorides,
a Greek physician of
the I st century ce,
considered it useful for
countering weariness,
and described how
shepherds used the
stems to make sieves
for straining milk.

Dried aerial parts

Medicinal Actions & Uses A valuable
diuretic, cleavers is often taken for skin diseases
such as seborrhea, eczema, and psoriasis; for
swollen lymph glands; and as a general detoxifying
agent in serious illnesses such as cancer. The plant
is commonly prepared in the form of an infusion,
but for conditions such as cancer, it is best taken as
a juice, which is strongly diuretic. The juice and the
infusion are also taken for kidney stones and other
urinary problems.

Research According to French research (1947), an
extract of the plant appears to lower blood pressure.
Related Species The Mexican G. orizabense is
used by the Mazatecs to treat intestinal parasites
and to relieve fever. G. umbrosum from New
Zealand has been used to treat gonorrhea. See
also lady’s bedstraw (G. verum, following entry).

Galium verum (Rubiaceae)

Lady’s Bedstraw

Description Short, sprawling perennial growing
to 32 in (80 cm). Has whorls of narrow dark green
leaves and tufts of very small bright yellow flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout
Europe and western Asia, and naturalized in North
America, lady’s bedstraw thrives in dry meadows,
along roadsides, and in wayside places. It is
gathered when in flower in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Lady’s bedstraw contains iridoids
(including asperuloside), flavonoids,
anthraquinones, alkanes, and rennin.

History & Folklore The name of this
pleasant-scented herb derives from its traditional
use as a stuffing for mattresses. In medieval times,
it was used as a “strewing” herb on floors. Lady’s
bedstraw curdles milk and gives a yellow color to
cheese produced from the curd. In his Irish Herbal
(1735), K’Eogh states, “when applied to burns, the
crushed flowers alleviate inflammation, and when
applied to wounds, they can heal them.”

Lady’s bedstraw is used as a diuretic.

G E L I D I U M A M A N S I I

Medicinal Actions & Uses A slightly bitter-
tasting remedy lady’s bedstraw is used mainly as a
diuretic and for skin problems. Like its close relative,
cleavers (G. aparine, preceding entry), the herb is
given for kidney stones, bladder stones, and other
urinary conditions, including cystitis. It is occasionally
used as a means to relieve chronic skin problems
such as psoriasis, but, in general, cleavers is preferred
as a treatment for this condition. Lady’s bedstraw
has had a longstanding reputation, especially in
France, of being a valuable remedy for epilepsy,
though it is rarely used for this purpose today.
Related Species G. elatum has also been
considered a remedy for epilepsy in France.

(See also G. aparine, preceding entry.)

Gardenia jasminoides syn.

G. augusta, G. florida (Rubiaceae)

Gardenia,

Zhi Zi (Chinese)

Description Evergreen shrub growing to 6 'A ft
(2 m). Has green leaves, scented double flowers,
and orange-red fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
southeastern provinces of China, gardenia prefers
humid, tropical climates. The fruit is gathered
when it turns reddish-yellow.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Gardenia fruit contains iridoid
glycosides. The flowers are the source of the
essential oil.

History & Folklore Gardenia has been used in
Chinese medicine for at least 2,000 years. It provides
an important essential oil used to flavor teas. The oil
is also used to make perfumes. Gardenia perfumes
often blend gardenia, jasmine, and tuberose.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In the Chinese
herbal tradition (pp. 40-^43), gardenia is a “bitter,

cold” herb used mostly to relieve symptoms
associated with heat. These include fever, irritability,
restlessness, insomnia, cystitis, painful urination, and
jaundice. The fruit staunches bleeding and
is taken for nosebleeds, and urinary and rectal
bleeding. The essential oil is an antiseptic and has
a reputation for being an aphrodisiac.

Related Species The fruit of the northern
Indian G. campanulata is cathartic and used to
expel worms. G. gummifera, from eastern India,
is antiseptic and digestive. The Pacific region
G. taitensis relieves headaches. The African
G. thunbergia is used to relieve constipation.
Cautions Avoid in diarrhea. Do not take if taking
prescribed medication for high blood pressure.

Gaultheria procumbens
(Ericaceae)

Wintergreen

Description Aromatic low-lying shrub growing to
6 in (15 cm). Has leathery, oval leaves, small white or
pale pink bell-shaped flowers, and brilliant red fruit.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, wintergreen is found in woodland and
exposed mountainous areas. The leaves and fruit
are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Leaves, fruit, essential oil.
Constituents Wintergreen contains phenols
(including gaultherin and salicylic acid), 0.8% volatile
oil (up to 98% methyl salicylate), mucilage, resin,
and tannins.

History & Folklore Wintergreen was popular
with Native Americans, who used it for treating back
pain, rheumatism, fever headaches, sore throats, and
many other conditions. Samuel Thomson, founder
of the 19th-century Physiomedicalist movement,
combined it with hemlock (Conium maculatum, p.

193) to treat severe fluid retention. The leaves have
been used as a substitute for tea (Camellia sinensis, p.
181), for example during the American
Revolutionary War (1776-1784).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wintergreen is
strongly anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and soothing to
the digestive system. It is an effective remedy for
rheumatic and arthritic problems, and, taken as a tea,
it relieves flatulence and colic. The essential oil, in the
form of a liniment or ointment, brings relief to
inflamed, swollen, or sore muscles, ligaments, and
joints, and can also prove valuable in treating
neurological conditions such as sciatica (pain resulting
from pressure on a nerve in the lower spine) and
trigeminal neuralgia (pain affecting a facial nerve).
The oil is sometimes used to treat cellulitis, a bacterial
infection causing the skin to become inflamed.
Cautions People who are sensitive to aspirin
should not take wintergreen internally. Oil of
wintergreen should never be taken internally,

nor applied (even well diluted) to the skin of
children under the age of 12 unless with
professional supervision.

Wintergreen makes an
effective liniment for
sore muscles and joints.

Gelidium amansii (Rhodophyceae)

Agar

Description Seaweed with red-brown,
translucent, multi-branched ribbons and fronds
growing to about 3 ft (I m) in length. It has spherical
fruit that appears in late autumn and winter.
Habitat & Cultivation Agar is native to the
Pacific coasts of China and Japan and the coast of
South Africa. It grows to a depth of 100 ft (30 m)
below sea level. Commercial harvesters rake plants
off banks and rocks. The cleaned seaweed, after
being boiled with sulphuric acid for 6 hours, yields
agar, which sets to form a jelly. Around 6,500 tons
of processed agar are produced each year.

Part Used Seaweed extract (agar).
Constituents Agar contains polysaccharides,
mainly agarose and agaropectin (up to 90%), which
are very mucilaginous.

History & Folklore Agar is commonly used
as a thickening agent in food preparation, but its
most widespread application is in scientific research,
where it is used as a culture medium for growing
micro-organisms in petri dishes.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Like most
seaweeds and their derivatives, agar is nutritious
and contains large amounts of mucilage. Its chief
medicinal use is as a bulk laxative. In the intestines,
agar absorbs water and swells, stimulating bowel
activity and the subsequent elimination of feces.
Related Species While G. amansii is the main
agar-producing species, G. cartilagineum (found
on the Pacific coast of North America) and other
closely related species around the world are being
used as alternative sources.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

G E L S E M I U M SEMPERVIRENS

Dried rootstock

Gelsemium sempervirens
(Loganiaceae)

Yellow Jasmine,

Gelsemium

Description Evergreen woody climber growing
to 20 ft (6 m). Has shiny dark green leaves and
clusters of fragrant, trumpet-shaped yellow flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
southern U.S. and Central America,
yellow jasmine prefers
damp sites. The rootstock
is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Rootstock.

Constituents Yellow
jasmine contains indole
alkaloids (including gelsemine
and gelsedine), iridoids,
coumarins, and tannins. The alkaloids are toxic and
act as a depressant to the central nervous system.
History & Folklore It is unclear whether
yellow jasmine was used in Native American
medicine. The plant came into regular use only
in the middle of the 19th century. It was first
employed by followers of the Eclectic herbal
movement, and then later became an official
medicine, listed in the Pharmacopoeia of the
United States from 1863 to 1926.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A potent medicinal
herb, yellow jasmine is prescribed in small doses
as a sedative and antispasmodic, most commonly
for neuralgia (pain caused by nerve irritation or
damage). Yellow jasmine is often given for nerve
pain affecting the face. The herb is also applied
externally to treat intercostal neuralgia (nerve pain
between the ribs) and sciatica (pain resulting from
pressure on a nerve in the lower spine). Yellow
jasmine’s antispasmodic property is used in treating
whooping cough and asthma. The herb is
occasionally taken for migraine, insomnia, and bowel
problems, and also to reduce blood pressure. Yellow
jasmine is also used in homeopathic medicine.

@ Cautions Yellow jasmine is an extremely
toxic plant that should be used only under
professional supervision. The plant is subject to
legal restrictions in some countries.

Geranium maculatum (Geraniaceae)

Wild Geranium

Description Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm).
Has deeply cleft leaves, pink-purple flowers, and
beak-shaped fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to woodlands
of eastern and central North America, the root
is dug up in early spring, and the aerial parts are
21 6 gathered in summer.

Parts Used Root, aerial parts.

Constituents Wild geranium contains up to
30% tannins.

History & Folklore Native American peoples
used wild geranium for sore throats, mouth ulcers,
infected gums, and oral thrush. The herb was later
used by European settlers for diarrhea, internal
bleeding, cholera, and venereal diseases.
Medicinal Actions & Uses An astringent and
clotting agent, wild geranium is used today much as
in earliertimes. The herb is often prescribed for
irritable bowel syndrome and hemorrhoids, and it
is used to staunch wounds. It may also be used to
treat heavy menstrual bleeding and excessive
vaginal discharge.

Related Species See herb robert
(G. robertianum, following entry).

Caution Wild geranium should only be taken for
a few weeks at a time.

Geranium robertianum
(Geraniaceae)

Herb Robert

Description Strong-smelling annual or biennial
herb growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has deeply cleft
red-green leaves, bright pink flowers, and pointed
seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
Asia, herb robert is naturalized in North America.
It is gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Herb robert contains tannins, a
bitter principle (geraniin), traces of volatile oil, and
citric acid.

History & Folklore Herb robert’s unpleasant
odor has earned it the name “stinking Bob” in
parts of England.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Herb robert
is little used in contemporary European herbal
medicine. It is occasionally employed in much the
same way as Wild geranium (G. maculatum,
preceding entry), as an astringent and wound
healer. The herb bears closer investigation as a
remedy. According to one authority it is effective
against stomach ulcers and inflammation of the
uterus, and it holds some potential as a treatment
for cancer.

Geum urbanum (Rosaceae)

Avens

Description Downy perennial growing to
60 cm (2 ft). Has wiry stems, compound leaves,
small, yellow 5-petaled flowers, and fruit covered
with hooks.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
central Asia, avens is a common wayside plant. The
root is dug up in spring, and the aerial parts are
picked in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Avens contains phenolic
glycosides (including eugenol), tannins, a volatile
oil, and possibly a sesquiterpene lactone (cnicin).
History & Folklore Once known as herba
benedicta (blessed herb), avens was credited with
significant magical powers in the Middle Ages. A
German text of 1493 states that if avens root is in the
house, the devil is powerless. According to tradition,
the root should be unearthed on March 25th.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Avens is an
astringent herb, used principally for problems
affecting the mouth, throat, and gastrointestinal
tract. The herb tightens up soft gums, heals mouth
ulcers, makes a good gargle for infections of the
pharynx and larynx, and reduces irritation of the
stomach and gut. It may be taken for peptic ulcers,
irritable bowel syndrome, diarrhea, and dysentery.
Avens has been used in a lotion or ointment as a
soothing remedy for hemorrhoids. The herb may
also be used as a douche for treating excessive
vaginal discharge. Avens reputedly has a mild
quinine-type action in lowering fever.

Glechoma hederacea

syn. Nepeta glechoma (Lamiaceae)

Ground Ivy,

Alehoof

Description Creeping perennial herb growing
to 15 cm (6 in). Has long rooting runners, notched
kidney-shaped leaves, and purple-blue flowers
in whorls.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
western Asia, ground ivy is now naturalized in other
temperate regions, including North America. It
thrives on the outskirts of woods and alongside
paths and hedges. It is gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Ground ivy contains
sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, a volatile oil, a bitter
principle (glechomine), caffeic acids, and tannins.
History & Folklore Known in parts of
England as “alehoof,” ground ivy was used to flavor
and clarify ale, the traditional drink of
the Anglo-Saxons. In Medieval times, it was
recommended for fever, and was a popular
treatment for chronic coughs. The 16th-century
herbalist John Gerard considered it a valuable
remedy for tinnitus.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Ground ivy
is tonic, diuretic, and decongestant, and is used
to treat many problems involving the mucous

GOSSYPIUM HERBACEUM

membranes of the ear, nose, throat, and digestive
system. A we 11-tolerated herb, it can be given
to children to clear lingering congestion and to
treat chronic conditions such as “glue ear” and
sinusitis. Throat and chest problems, especially
those due to excess mucus, also benefit from this
remedy. Ground ivy is also a valuable treatment for
gastritis and acid indigestion. Further along the
gastrointestinal tract, its binding nature helps to
counter diarrhea and to dry up watery and mucoid
secretions. Ground ivy has been employed to
prevent scurvy and as a spring tonic, and is
considered beneficial in kidney disorders.

Ground ivy is useful
for many disorders of
the digestive system.

Glycine max (Fabaceae)

Soy

Description Annual growing to 6% ft (2 m).

Has leaves with 3 leaflets, white or purple flowers,
and pods with 2-4 beans.

Habitat & Cultivation Soy is native to south¬
western Asia, and is cultivated in warm temperate
regions. The pods are gathered when ripe.

Parts Used Beans, sprouts.

Constituents Soy contains protein (about
30%), fixed oil (about 17%), including lecithin
(2% or more), linoleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid,
isoflavones, coumestrol, sterols, saponins, vitamins,
and minerals. Coumestrol and the isoflavones
closely mimic estrogen within the body.

History & Folklore A staple food in much of
Asia, soy has been used in China for at least 5,000
years. Soy was introduced in the United States in
1804 and has become a major crop in the South
and Midwest. It is now one of the world’s most
important food crops.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Although
soybeans and soy produce have little direct
medicinal value, they are highly important as foods,
providing unusually high levels of protein, lecithin,
and essential fatty acids. However, the beans may
have a protective role against cancer, notably
breast cancer. Their significant estrogenic activity
makes them a particularly good medicinal food for
women going through menopause, helping
to relieve symptoms such as hot flashes, and to
protect against osteoporosis. In Chinese medicine,
soybean sprouts (also highly nutritious) are
thought to help relieve “summer heat” and fever
Research Soybean is a remarkable nutrient, rich
in protein, fats, and estrogenic substances, all of
which make it an excellent food. The isoflavones,
sterols, saponins, and fiber contribute to soy’s
protective activity against cancer, and countries such
as Japan are thought to have lower levels of cancer
because of the great quantity of soy produce eaten
there. The isoflavones, coumestrol, and sterols are
all phytoestrogens. These appear to inhibit estrogen
within the body when estrogen levels are too high
(for example, in menstrual disorders), and to
compensate when estrogen levels are low (such as
during menopause). Unrefined soybean oil
contains high levels of lecithin and polyunsaturated
essential fatty acids, which support healthy levels of
blood fat such as cholesterol.

Gnaphalium uliginosum
(Asteraceae)

Marsh Cudweed

Description Annual plant growing to 8 in
(20 cm). Has narrow silver-grey leaves and tiny
yellow flower heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Marsh cudweed is
native to Europe, the Caucasus, and western Asia,
and is naturalized in North America. It prefers damp
areas, and is gathered in summer when in flower.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Marsh cudweed contains a volatile
oil and tannins.

Medicinal Actions & Uses While little used
medicinally today, marsh cudweed has astringent,
antiseptic, and decongestant properties. In British
herbal medicine, it is occasionally taken for tonsillitis,
sore throat, and hoarseness, and for mucus in the
throat, nasal passages, and sinuses. Marsh cudweed
is used in Russia to reduce high blood pressure. It is
thought to be antidepressant and aphrodisiac.

Related Species A North American relative,
G. polycephalum, was used to treat respiratory and
intestinal congestion, and was applied as a poultice
for bruises. G. keriense, native to New Zealand, is
also considered a remedy for bruises.

Marsh cudweed is commonly found in damp areas
in Europe, North America, and Asia.

Gossypium herbaceum (Malvaceae)

Cotton

Description Biennial or perennial growing to
about 8 ft (2.5 m). Has lobed leaves, large white
or pink flowers, and seed capsules surrounded by
fluffy white tufts.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Americas, Africa, and Asia, cotton thrives in warm
temperate and tropical climates. It is widely
cultivated for its fiber. The root and seeds of the
plant are harvested in autumn.

Parts Used Root bark, seed oil.

Constituents Cotton root bark contains
gossypol (a sesquiterpene) and flavonoids. Cotton
seed contains a fixed oil, which is about 2% gossypol,
and flavonoids. Gossypol causes infertility in men.
History & Folklore In India and the Middle
East, cotton has been cultivated since the earliest
times for its fiber and medicinal properties. The
plant was particularly valued for its ability to induce
menstruation. Cotton seed oil’s contraceptive effect
in men was first discovered in China when men
became infertile after eating food cooked in the oil.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Cotton root
bark is rarely used medicinally today. It was once
employed as a substitute for ergot (Claviceps
purpurea ), the widely used labor-inducing herb.
Cotton root bark is both milder-acting and safer
in effect, stimulating uterine contractions and
hastening a difficult labor. It also promotes
abortion or the onset of a period, and reduces
menstrual flow. Cotton root bark encourages
the blood to clot and the secretion of breastmilk.
Cotton seed oil is used to treat heavy menstrual
bleeding and endometriosis.

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G RIN D E L I A CAMPORUM

Research Cotton seeds and seed oil cause
infertility in men, and have been tested as a male
contraceptive in China. However, in addition to
lowering sperm count, cotton seed oil causes the
degeneration of sperm-producing cells.

Related Species The American species
G. hirsutum was used extensively as a medicinal herb
by the Maya and Aztecs, and was also cultivated for
its fiber. Columbus carried samples of this species
back to Europe from his first voyage. Native
American people used the bark to ease the pain
of childbirth, and by the 19th century it was used
as an inducer of menstruation and abortion.

© O Cautions Cotton root bark and seed
oil are potentially toxic and should only be used
under professional supervision. Do not use
during pregnancy.

Grindelia camporum syn.

G. robusta var. rigida (Asteraceae)

Gumplant

Description Perennial herb growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has triangular leaves and yellow-orange
daisy-type flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
southwestern U.S. and Mexico, gumplant grows in
arid and saline soil. It is harvested in late summer
when in flower.

Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops.
Constituents Gumplant contains diterpenes
(including grindelic acid), resins, and flavonoids.
History & Folklore Gumplant was used by
Native Americans to treat bronchial problems and
skin afflictions. Gumplant was officially recognized
in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States from
1882 to 1926.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Gumplant is
a valuable remedy for bronchial asthma, and for
states where phlegm in the airways impedes
respiration. Both antispasmodic and expectorant,
gumplant helps to relax the muscles of the smaller
bronchial passages and to clear congested mucus.
Additionally, it is thought to desensitize the nerve
endings in the bronchial tree and to slow the heart
rate, both leading to easier breathing. Gumplant is
also taken for bronchitis and emphysema, and to
clear mucus buildup in the throat and nose. It has
been employed in the treatment of whooping
cough, hay fever, and cystitis, and externally to help
speed the healing of skin irritation and burns.
Related Species G. squamosa, a North American
species used interchangeably with G. camporum, was
taken by Native Americans to treat respiratory

; problems such as colds, coughs, and tuberculosis.
@ ©Cautions Toxic in excessive doses. Only
take under professional supervision. Do not take if
21 8 suffering from kidney or heart problems.

Guaiacum officinale
(Zygophyllaceae)

Lignum Vitae,

Guayacan (Spanish)

Description Evergreen tree growing to 10 m
(33 ft). Has compound oval leaves, small, deep blue
star-shaped flowers, and heart-shaped seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Lignum vitae is native
to South America and the Caribbean islands. It
grows in tropical rainforests. The tree is felled for its
timber, and resin is extracted from the heartwood.

Parts Used Wood, resin.

Constituents Lignum vitae contains lignans
(furoguaiacidin, guaiacin, and others), triterpene
saponins, 18-25% resin, and volatile oil.

Lignum vitae was once in high demand in Europe as
a purported cure for syphilis.

History & Folklore In 1519, Ulrich von Hutten,
a German satirist, was said to have cured himself
of syphilis after a 40-day regimen involving fasting,
profuse sweating, and drinking decoctions of
lignum vitae. Lurthermore, in 1526, Oviedo, one of
the earliest chroniclers of American natural history,
wrote that “Caribbean Indians cure themselves
very easily” of venereal disease with this plant. Lor
some years, lignum vitae was in great demand in
Europe but it slowly fell into disrepute, its use as a
cure for syphilis being seen as a long-lasting hoax.
However, it is possible that the herb might have
some effect if combined with an intensive
naturopathic regimen.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Used in Europe,
especially in Britain, as a remedy for arthritic and
rheumatic conditions, lignum vitae has anti¬
inflammatory properties that help to reduce joint
pain and swelling. It is also diuretic, laxative, and
sweat-inducing and speeds the elimination of
toxins, which makes it valuable for treating gout.
Tincture of lignum vitae is commonly used as a

friction rub on rheumatic areas. Absorbent cotton
moistened with the resin may be applied to aching
teeth. A decoction of the woodchips acts as a local
anesthetic, and is used to treat rheumatic joints
and herpes blisters.

Related Species G. sanctum, which grows
in Central America and parts of Llorida, and
G. coulteri, native to Mexico, are used in the
same manner as lignum vitae.

Caution Lignum vitae is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries and is endangered.

Guarea rusbyi syn. G. guidonia
(Meliaceae)

Cocillana,

Guapi Bark

Description Evergreen tree growing to 150 ft
(45 m) with pale grey bark, compound lance¬
shaped leaves, and green-white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Cocillana is native
to the eastern Andes. The bark is gathered
throughout the year.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Cocillana contains anthraquinones,
proanthocyanids, and a volatile oil.

History & Folklore Cocillana has been used
as an emetic in traditional South American and
Caribbean medicine, probably for many centuries.
The plant was first introduced to Western medicine
by H. H. Rusby, who collected samples in Bolivia
in 1886.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cocillana is used
in cough mixtures, being an even more powerful
expectorant than ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha,
p. 186). Cocillana is taken as a treatment for
coughs, excessive mucus production in the throat
and chest, and bronchitis. At a high dosage, the
plant induces vomiting.

Related Species A gum resin derived from
the Caribbean G. guara is used as a clotting agent,
and a decoction of the leaves is taken as a treatment
for internal bleeding.

© Caution Use cocillana only under
professional supervision.

Gymnema sylvestre
(Asclepiadaceae)

Gymnema,

Gurmar (Hindi)

Description Large, evergreen, twining plant,
climbing up through forest trees, sometimes to a
considerable height. Has dull green leaves about
2 in (5 cm) long, and umbels of small yellow flowers.

HIBISCUS S A B D A R I F F A

Habitat & Cultivation Gymnema is native
to forests of central and southern India, Southeast
Asia, and as far south as northern Australia. It
prefers loamy soil.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Gymnema contains saponins
(gymnemic acids) and a polypeptide (gurmarin).
History & Folklore Gymnema has long been
used in Indian domestic medicine as a remedy for
sugar cravings and diabetes. Its Hindi name means
“sugar destroyer.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Gymnema has
real value in treating diabetes, especially in the
early stages of type 2 diabetes, which develops
in middle to old age. If taken consistently for a
year or more, it will help to prevent the condition
deteriorating. Gymnema may help to regenerate
cells in the pancreas that secrete insulin, so
it may be possible to control or reverse mild
diabetes with diet and gymnema. The plant’s
remarkable ability to block sweet tastes means
that it can reduce sugar cravings and contribute
to weight-loss programs.

Research In recent research in India and
Japan, gymnema has shown promise as a safe
and effective natural treatment for diabetes. In
two clinical trials in India, patients with diabetes
needed less insulin or other treatments to lower
blood-sugar levels. There is an indication that
gymnema may encourage repair of the islet cells
of the pancreas, responsible for insulin secretion.
The leaves have been shown to anesthetize the
sweet taste buds of the tongue, and temporarily
reduce appetite.

Haronga madagascariensis
(Guttiferae)

Haronga

Description Small evergreen tree growing
to 26 ft (8 m). Has black-dotted leaves with
a dark green upper surface and red-brown
hairs underneath, and clusters of creamy-
white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Haronga is native
to Madagascar and East Africa, and grows in
tropical areas. The leaves and bark are collected
throughout the year.

Parts Used Leaves, bark.

Constituents Haronga bark contains phenolic
pigments, triterpenes, anthraquinones, and tannins.
The leaves contain phenolic pigments, the diterpene
hypericin, flavonoids, and tannins. Hypericin, which
is also found in St. John’s wort (Hypericum
perforatum, p. 106), has antiviral properties.
History & Folklore Haronga resin has
traditionally been used in Africa to secure
arrowheads onto shafts.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Thought to
stimulate bile secretion, haronga is used in European
herbal medicine to treat indigestion and poor
pancreatic function. In African herbal medicine,
haronga is chiefly employed as an astringent and
mild laxative, and is also given for digestive system
ailments such as diarrhea and dysentery.

an expectorant, stimulating the coughing up
and clearance of phlegm. It has a beneficial effect
on mucous membranes and is generally combined
with tonic herbs, especially thyme (Thymus vulgaris,
p. 143). Ivy extracts are common ingredients in
cosmetic formulations for cellulite.

Caution Fresh leaves can irritate the skin.

Hedera helix (Araliaceae)

Ivy,

English Ivy

Description A woody climber up to 100 ft
(30 m) with leathery, dark green leaves, clusters of
greenish-yellow flowers and black or orange berries.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
northern and central Asia, ivy has been introduced,
often as a garden climber; in many parts of the world.
In the wild, it typically grows on trees and in hedges.
Parts Used Leaves, berries.

Constituents Ivy contains saponins, sterols,
polyacetylenes, a volatile oil, and flavonoids.

The saponins are expectorant, amebicidal, and
antifungal, and kill liver flukes.

History & Folklore In the classical world,
common ivy was dedicated to Dionysus, the god
of wine making and intoxication. Ivy was thought
to be able to prevent or undo drunkenness. The
leaf was traditionally used in England to treat corns
and warts—it was soaked in vinegar and bound
on as a poultice, or placed inside a sock, overlying
the corn.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Ivy is chiefly
used for congestion of the ear, nose, and
throat, as well as for bronchitis. It acts as

Herniaria glabra
(Caryophyllaceae)

Rupturewort

Description Prostrate annual or perennial
with bright green oval leaves and clusters of
green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Rupturewort is found
throughout Europe and western Asia. It thrives in
barren areas, in lime and sandy soils. It is gathered
when in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Rupturewort contains coumarins
(including 3% herniarin and scopoletin), flavonoids,
phenolic acids, and saponins.

History & Folklore Rupturewort was first
documented in European herbals of the 16th
century. Its genus name, Herniaria, refers to its
reputed ability to heal hernias.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Rupturewort is
of value chiefly as a diuretic herb. The fresh plant
treats urinary problems such as cystitis, irritable
bladder, and kidney stones. It is also astringent, and
has been applied as a poultice to speed the healing
of ulcers. The whole plant appears to have an
antispasmodic effect on the bladder.

Ivy was thought, in the classical world, to undo drunkenness.

Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus,

Jamaica

Description Shrub growing to 614 ft (2 m)
in height.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
Africa and Southeast Asia, hibiscus grows in tropical
regions around the world. It is primarily cultivated
across Africa and in Thailand, China, and Mexico.
Parts Used Calyx (the outer base of the flower),
flowers, leaves.

Constituents The calyx and flowers contain
flavonoids, including anthocyanins.

History & Folklore Hibiscus” means “plant
that is consecrated to the ibis,” a bird held sacred in
ancient Egypt.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Hibiscus makes
a refreshing, pleasant-tasting tea that is cooling
and mildly sedative, soothing hot and feverish

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

HIERACIUM PILOSELLA

conditions. The calyces are gently tonic and will
ease colds, coughs, and chest problems. They also
aid digestion and gently stimulate appetite. Both
the calyces and flowers act to reduce cholesterol
levels. All parts of hibiscus are demulcent, mildly
soothing sore or inflamed mucous membranes
within the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Research Various clinical studies have shown
that hibiscus helps to lower high blood pressure.

Hieracium pilosella syn. Pilosella
officinarum (Asteraceae)

Mouse-ear

Hawkweed

Description Perennial herb growing to a height
of 8 in (20 cm) from a rosette of basal leaves. Stems
bear single bright yellow flower heads.

Habitat & Cultivation Mouse-ear hawkweed
is common throughout much of Europe and
temperate regions of Asia and North America.
Found growing in dry pastures and on sandy soil,
it is collected when in flower in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Mouse-ear hawkweed contains
a coumarin (umbelliferone), flavonoids, and caffeic
acid. It is thought to be mildly antifungal.

History & Folklore In his Irish Herbal (1735),
K’Eogh summarizes mouse-ear hawkweed’s
medicinal benefits: “good against the spitting of
blood, all kinds of flow, coughs, ulcers of the lungs,
mouth and eyes, and shingles.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Mouse-ear
hawkweed relaxes the muscles of the bronchial
tubes, stimulates the cough reflex, and reduces
the production of mucus. This combination of
actions makes the herb effective in respiratory
problems, including asthma and wheeziness,
whooping cough, bronchitis, and other chronic
and congested coughs. The herb is used to
control heavy menstrual bleeding, and to ease
the coughing up of blood. It may be applied as
a poultice to heal wounds.

Hippophae rhamnoides
(Eiaeagnaceae)

Sea Buckthorn

220

Description Thorny deciduous shrub growing to
16 ft (5 m). Has narrow silvery leaves, male or female
flowers, and clusters of brownish-orange berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
Asia, sea buckthorn grows mainly in sandy coastal
areas and in dry riverbeds in mountainous regions.
The berries are harvested in the autumn.

Sea buckthorn is distinguished by its thorny stems
and narrow silvery leaves. The berries help improve
the body’s resistance to infection.

Parts Used Berries.

Constituents The fruit contains flavonoids,
flavones, carotenoids, vitamins A, C (present in
very high quantities), and E, and high levels of
minerals including sulphur, selenium, zinc, and
copper. The seeds contain appreciable levels of
alpha-linolenic acid.

History & Folklore The sour-tasting berries
have traditionally been eaten with milk and cheese
by Siberians and Tartars, who also used them to
make a pleasant-tasting jelly.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Sea buckthorn
berries are very high in vitamin C. They
have principally been used to help
improve resistance to infection. The
berries are mildly astringent, and a
decoction of them has been used as a
wash to treat skin irritation and eruptions,
and to promote healing.

Research Research into sea buckthorn fruit,
seed, and seed oil indicates that they have
definite therapeutic value. The fruit especially
supports heart and circulatory health and is useful
in treating conditions such as capillary fragility,
arteriosclerosis, and a weak heart. The seed oil
nourishes the skin, promotes tissue healing, and will
often prove useful in treating eczema.

Hoodia gordonii (Apocynaceae)

Hoodia

Description Unusual-looking succulent growing
to 3 ft (I m), hoodia has multiple spiny, grey-green
stems and light purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Kalahari
desert, hoodia is now extensively cultivated in
Namibia and South Africa. The plant is grown from
seed or cuttings. Trade in the hoodia plant is legally
restricted due to its threatened survival in the wild.

Parts Used The peeled stem.

Constituents Hoodia contains a steroidal
glycoside, which is thought to act as an appetite
suppressant.

History & Folklore The San people of the
Kalahari traditionally used this plant to suppress
sensations of thirst and hunger, when on journeys
through the desert. Such use was first recorded
in 1937.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Hoodia
provides a cautionary tale for herbal medicines
and supplements in the 21 st century. There is
little evidence that taking it leads to weight loss
other than the plant’s traditional use as an appetite
suppressant, while its safety profile is unknown.
Despite this, after media coverage by the BBC
in 2003, sales of hoodia supplements rocketed,
with prices in the LA Times reaching $40 per
ounce (30 g) in 2006. At such a price, it is not
hard to see why hoodia’s survival in the wild is
severely threatened. It would seem sensible to
opt instead for herbs that are endorsed for their
use for weight loss by scientific studies and
where there is no risk of the herb disappearing
from the wild, such as Gymnema (Gymnema
sylvestre, p. 218).

O Cautions Seek professional advice before
taking hoodia products, especially if taking
prescribed blood-thinning medication for
conditions such as diabetes or high blood pressure.

Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae)

Barley

Description Annual grass growing to about
3 ft (I m). Has an erect hollow stem, lance¬
shaped leaves, and ears bearing twin rows
of seeds and long bristles.

Habitat & Cultivation Barley is
cultivated in temperate regions
worldwide. It is harvested when the
seeds are mature.

Parts Used Seeds.
Constituents Barley contains
polysaccharides, proteins,
sugars, fats, and vitamins B and
E. The young seedlings also
contain the amines tyramine
and gramine.

4

A i

Barley has been
eaten since
Neolithic times.

* W

HYOSCYAMUS NIGER

History & Folklore Barley has been
consumed for many thousands of years.
Dioscorides (I st century ce) recommended
it “to weaken and restrain all sharp and subtle
humours, and sore and ulcerated throats.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses An excellent
food for convalescence in the form of porridge
or barley water, barley is soothing to the throat
and provides easily assimilated nutrients. It can
also be taken to clear mucus. Its demulcent quality
soothes inflammation of the gut and urinary tract.
Barley aids in the digestion of milk and is given to
babies to prevent the development of curds within
the stomach. It is commonly given to children
suffering from minor infections or diarrhea, and it
is particularly recommended as a treatment for
feverish states. Made into a poultice, barley is an
effective remedy for soothing and reducing
inflammation in sores and swellings.

Research The fiber in barley, like that in oats,
has an established action in reducing fat absorption
from the gut, aiding lower cholesterol levels. In
common with other fiber foods, it may also help
to stabilize blood sugar levels and to prevent
bowel cancer.

Hydrangea arborescens
(Hydrangeaceae)

Wild Hydrangea

Description Woody-stemmed deciduous shrub
growing to a height of about 10 ft (3 m). Has oval
leaves and clusters of small, creamy-white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the eastern
U.S. from New York to Florida, wild hydrangea
grows in woodlands and on riverbanks. The root
is dug up in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Hydrangea is thought to contain
flavonoids, a cyanogenic glycoside (hydrangein),
saponins, and a volatile oil.

Wild hydrangea is used to treat kidney and bladder stones.

History & Folklore The Cherokee used
hydrangea as a remedy for kidney and bladder
stones. The 19th-century Physiomedicalist
herbal movement used a formula comprising
hydrangea, couch grass (Agropyron repens, p. 162),
and hollyhock (Althaea rosea) to treat serious
kidney disorders, including nephritis.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Western
herbal medicine considers the diuretic
hydrangea as being particularly helpful in
the treatment of kidney and bladder stones.

It is thought both to encourage the expulsion
of stones and to help dissolve those that
remain. The herb is given for many other
troubles affecting the genitourinary system,
including cystitis, urethritis, enlarged prostate,
and prostatitis.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or
while breastfeeding. Wild hydrangea is best taken
on professional advice.

Hygrophila spinosa
(Acanthaceae)

Gokulakanta

Description Thorny, red-stemmed annual
growing to 2 ft (60 cm). Has bright blue flowers
and small, flat, dark red seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India,
gokulakanta is now widely distributed throughout
tropical regions. It is gathered when in flower.
Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Gokulakanta contains mucilage,
fixed and volatile oils, and an alkaloid.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Commonly used
as a remedy in India, gokulakanta is taken chiefly
for its reputed aphrodisiac properties. Both the
aerial parts and ash of the burned plant are strongly
diuretic, and are used to flush water from the body
in cases of excess fluid retention.

Related Species The South American
H. guayensis is bactericidal and has been used as a
local treatment for the tropical disease, leishmaniasis.

Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae)

Henbane

Description Annual or biennial herb growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has delicate, slightly lobed leaves
and bell-shaped flowers, pale yellow in color
with fine purple veining.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
Asia and southern Europe, henbane is now
found across much of western and
central Europe, and North and
South America. It is cultivated for

therapeutic use in parts of Europe, including
England, and in North America. The leaves and
flowers are picked just after the plant has
flowered, in the first year for the annual variety
and in the second year for the biennial.

Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops.
Constituents Henbane contains 0.045-0.14%
tropane alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and
hyoscine, and flavonoids. Hyoscyamine and hyoscine
are common to other members of the Solanaceae
family, but henbane’s relatively high hyoscine content
gives it a more specifically sedative action than its
relatives thornapple (Datura stramonium, p. 200)
and deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna, p. 69).
History & Folklore Henbane has been used
as a medicinal herb for thousands of years.
Babylonian accounts and the Egyptian Ebers papyrus
(c. 1 500 bce) record that henbane was smoked to
relieve toothache. In Greek myth, the dead were
adorned with henbane when they arrived in Hades.
Writing in the I st century ce, Dioscorides
recommended henbane for insomnia, coughs,
congestion, heavy menstrual bleeding, eye pain,
gout, and as a general pain reliever, and advised
that the herb should be used within a year as it
deteriorates quickly. In the Middle Ages, henbane
had the Latin name dentaria, denoting its use as a
remedy against toothache. Henbane reputedly
produces a sensation of lightness, as though one
were flying, and it was one of the chief
components of witches’ “flying ointments.”

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

HYSSOPUS OFFICINALIS

Medicinal Actions & Uses Henbane is
used extensively in herbal medicine as a sedative
and painkiller. Its specific use is for pain affecting
the urinary tract, especially pain due to kidney
stones, though it is also given for abdominal
cramping. Its sedative and antispasmodic effect
makes it a valuable treatment for the symptoms
of Parkinson’s disease, relieving tremor and rigidity
during the early stages of the illness. Henbane
has also been used to treat asthma and bronchitis,
usually as a “burning powder” or in the form
of a cigarette. Applied externally as an oil, it can
relieve painful conditions such as neuralgia, sciatica,
and rheumatism. Henbane reduces mucus
secretions, as well as saliva and other digestive
juices. Like its cousin deadly nightshade, it dilates
the pupils. Hyoscine is commonly employed as
a pre-operative anesthetic and in motion
sickness formulations.

Related Species Other Hyoscyamus species
are used in a similar way. The North African
H. muticus is traditionally smoked by Bedouins
to relieve toothache. See also deadly nightshade
(Atropa belladonna, p. 69).

© ©Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Potentially toxic in overdose,
henbane is subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

Hyssopus officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Hyssop

Description Semi-evergreen shrub growing
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has narrow leaves and clusters
of blue double-lipped flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe, hyssop grows freely in Mediterranean
countries, especially in the Balkans and Turkey.

222

Hyssop has a positive effect on respiratory infections.

It prefers sunny, dry sites and is a common garden
herb. The flowering tops are harvested when
the plant is in flower in summer.

Parts Used Flowering tops, essential oil.
Constituents Contains terpenes (including
marubiin, a diterpene), a volatile oil (consisting
mainly of camphor, pinocamphone, and beta-
pinene), flavonoids, tannins, and resin. Marubiin is a
strong expectorant. Pinocamphone is toxic, and
the volatile oil can cause epileptic seizures.
History & Folklore In the past, hyssop
was so highly esteemed it was regarded as a
virtual cure-all. An old saying went, “Whoever
rivals hyssop’s virtues, knows too much.” In the
I st century ce, Dioscorides recommended
a recipe containing a mixture of hyssop, figs
(Ficus carica, p. 21 I), rue (Ruta graveolens,
p. 265), honey, and water for treating a
number of conditions, including pleurisy,
asthma, tight-chestedness, respiratory congestion,
and chronic coughs.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Currently
an undervalued medicinal herb, hyssop is
potentially useful as it is both calming and tonic.

It has a positive effect when used to treat
bronchitis and respiratory infections, especially
where there is excessive mucus production.
Hyssop appears to encourage the production
of a more liquid mucus, and at the same time
gently stimulates expectoration. This combined
action clears thick and congested phlegm. Hyssop
can irritate the mucous membranes, so it is best
given after an infection has peaked, when the
herb’s tonic action encourages a general recovery.
As a sedative, hyssop is a useful remedy against
asthma in both children and adults, especially
where the condition is exacerbated by mucus
congestion. Like many herbs with a strong
volatile oil, it soothes the digestive tract and can
be an effective remedy against indigestion, gas,
bloating, and colic.

Cautions Hyssop essential oil can induce
epileptic seizures. It should only be used under
professional supervision. Hyssop essential oil is
subject to legal restrictions in some countries.

Ilex paraguariensis

syn. I. paraguensis (Aquifoliaceae)

Mate

Description Evergreen shrub or small tree
growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has large leaves, white
flowers, and small reddish fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Mate grows wild
in northern Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and
southern Brazil, and is widely cultivated in
Argentina, Spain, and Portugal. The leaves are
picked when the berries are ripe, heated over a

wood fire, ground, and then stored in sacks for
a year before being sold.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Mate contains xanthine
derivatives, including about 1.5% caffeine, about
0.2% theobromine, theophylline, and up to 16%
tannins. The high tannin content means that mate
should not be consumed with meals, as tannins
impair the absorption of nutrients.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Mate is a

Mate makes a pleasant-tasting tea that has a stimulant,
mildly analgesic, and diuretic effect.

traditional South American tea that increases
short-term physical and mental energy levels. It
is taken as a fortifying beverage in much the same
way as tea (Camellia sinensis, p. 18 I) is consumed
throughout Asia and Europe. Mate has properties
similar to those of tea and coffee (Coffea arabica,
p. 192). It stimulates the nervous system and is
mildly analgesic and diuretic. As a medicinal herb,
mate is used to treat headaches, migraine,
neuralgic and rheumatic pain, fatigue, and mild
depression. It has also been used in the treatment
of diabetes.

Related Species I. guayusa, from Ecuador, is
used in much the same way as mate but is also
employed medicinally to treat malaria, liver pain,
and syphilis. It is thought to aid digestion and
cleanse the digestive tract.

Illicium verum (Schisandaceae)

Star Anise,

Bajiao Hui Xian (Chinese)

Description Evergreen tree growing to 59 ft
(18 m). Has tapering leaves, pale greenish-yellow
flowers and star-shaped segmented fruit (seed pods).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China, India
and Vietnam, star anise grows in tropical regions
across the world. The fruit is harvested when ripe.
Parts Used Fruit and seeds.

IRIS VERSICOLOR

a digestive, stimulant,
and diuretic remedy.

Constituents Star anise contains a volatile
oil (mostly anethole), sesquiterpenoids, and
flavonoids, including quercetin. Anethole calms
the digestive system and relieves gas. The
sesquiterpenoids have analgesic activity. Shikimic
acid, found in the seed pods, was until recently
used as the main source for the production of
Tamiflu, a prescribed anti-viral medicine.

History & Folklore Due to its high anethole
content, star anise has a similar taste to anise
(.Pipinella anisum, p. 248), and both are used
principally as spices. The herb’s Chinese name,
ba jiao hui xian, means “8-horned fennel.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Used in
Chinese herbal medicine as a remedy for
rheumaism, back pain, and hernias, star anise
has stimulant, diuretic, and digestive properties.

It makes an effective remedy for gas and
indigestion—especially colic—and can safely
be given to children. To treat hernias of the
intestine or bladder, star anise is often mixed
with fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212). Both
herbs help to relax the organ’s muscles and
relieve spasm. Star anise is also used for toothache.
Caution Japanese star anise ( lllicium anisatum),
which is very similar to star anise, contains a toxic
compound and can cause serious side effects.

Imperatoria ostruthium, syn.
Peucedanum ostruthium

Masterwort

Description Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm)
with green leaves divided into 3 leaflets with 3 lobes,
white flowers on large umbels, and winged seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to central and
southern Europe and Asia, most often found in the
wild. The root is unearthed in autumn or spring.
Part Used Root.

Constituents Masterwort contains a
camphoraceous volatile oil (including limonene,
phellandrene, alpha-pinene, and a sesquiterpene),
peucadanin, oxipeucadanin, and ostrutol.

History & Folklore From the late Middle
Ages onward, masterwort was held in high regard

Iris versicolor (Iridaceae)

Blue Flag,

Wild Iris

by herbalists. Pierandrea Matteoli’s Materia
Medica of 1548 explains: “Masterwort powerfully
resolves all flatulence in the body, stimulates
urine and menstruation, is an admirable remedy
for paralysis and cold conditions of the brain, and
helps against pestilence and the bites of rabid
dogs.” A century later, Nicholas Culpeper was
no less fulsome in recommending masterwort
for rheumatic conditions, shortness of breath,
kidney and bladder stones, water retention,
“falling sickness,” and wounds.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Masterwort
is little used today, but it may well be an herb that
bears further investigation. The root is aromatic,
warms central areas of the body, and is a bitter
tonic. It has a strong action within the stomach
and gut, settling indigestion and relieving gas
and cramping. Masterwort is also beneficial for
chest conditions, and is used for colds, asthma,
and bronchitis. It can also be helpful for
menstrual problems.

Caution If applied to the skin, masterwort
may cause an allergic reaction to sunlight.

Ipomoea purga syn. Convolvulus
jalapa (Convolvulaceae)

Jalap

Description Evergreen vine reaching about
13 ft (4 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and trumpet¬
like purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Mexico,
jalap is cultivated in Central America, the West
Indies, and Southeast Asia. The root is unearthed
in summer.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Jalap contains the resin
convolvulin.

History & Folklore Spanish colonizers
learned of jalap’s strong purgative effect from
Mexican native peoples. Introduced into Europe
in 1565, the herb was used for all types of
illnesses until the 19th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Jalap is such
a powerful cathartic that its medicinal value
is questionable. Even in moderate doses it
stimulates the elimination of profuse watery
stools, and in larger doses it causes vomiting.
Related Species /. turpethum, native to Asia
and Australia, is also a drastic purgative. Other
Ipomoea species, such as the sweet potato
(/. batatas, from South America), are important
food plants. The seeds of morning glory
(/. violacea ), native to Mexico, contain
compounds similar to LSD, and were taken
ritually by the Zapotecs and Aztecs.

© Caution Do not take jalap under any
circumstances.

Description Perennial growing to about 3 ft
(I m). Has erect stems and long sword-shaped
leaves. Each stem bears 3-5 resplendent blue
to violet flowers with white-veined areas on
the petals.

Habitat & Cultivation Blue flag is native to
North America. Preferring damp and marshy areas
in the wild, it is also widely cultivated as a garden
plant. The rhizome is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Blue flag contains triterpenoids,
salicylic, and isophthalic acids, a very small amount
of volatile oil, starch, resin, an oleoresin, and tannins.
History & Folklore Blue flag was one of the
medicinal plants most frequently used by Native
Americans. Different tribes made use of it variously
as an emetic, cathartic, and diuretic, to treat wounds,
and for colds, earache, and cholera. In the Anglo-
American Physiomedicalist tradition, blue flag was
used as a glandular and liver remedy. Blue flag is
Quebec’s provincial flower.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Blue flag is
currently used mainly to detoxify the body. It
increases urination and bile production, and has
a mild laxative effect. This combination of cleansing
actions makes it a useful herb for chronic skin
diseases such as acne and eczema, especially where
gallbladder problems or constipation contribute to
the condition. Blue flag is also given for biliousness
and indigestion. However, in large doses blue flag
will itself cause vomiting. The traditional use of blue
flag for gland problems persists. It is also believed
by some to aid weight loss.

Cautions Excessive doses cause vomiting.

Do not take this plant during pregnancy.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

J A S M I N U M GRANDIFLORUM

Jasminum grandiflorum (Oleaceae)

Jasmine

Description Slender evergreen rambler growing
to 20 ft (6 m). Has dark green compound leaves and
large, sweetly scented tubular white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern
India, Pakistan, and the northwestern Himalayas,
jasmine is now cultivated as a garden plant and for
its essential oil.

Parts Used Flowers, essential oil.

Jasmine flowers are the source of an essential oil that
is used to treat stress and depression.

Constituents Jasmine’s volatile oil contains
benzyl alcohol, benzyl acetate, linalool, and
I inalyl acetate.

History & Folklore Jasmine was introduced
to Europe in the 16th century, and is mainly used
as a source of perfume.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Jasmine flowers
make a calming and sedative infusion, taken to
relieve tension. The oil is considered antidepressant
and relaxing. It is used externally to soothe dry
or sensitive skin. Due to frequent adulteration,
the oil is rarely used in aromatherapy.

Related Species Actually native to Southeast
Asia, Arabian jasmine (/. sambac ) is used
as an eyewash, is added to tea ( Camellia sinensis,
p. 181) to produce jasmine tea, and is used in
Buddhist ceremonies.

Caution Jasmine essential oil should not be
taken internally.

Jateorhiza palmata
(Menispermaceae)

Calumba

224

Description Creeping vine with a perennial
rootstock, growing to a great height and often
reaching the tops of trees. Has large palm-shaped

leaves, small greenish-white flowers, with male
and female flowers on separate plants, and
round, fleshy fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
rainforests of eastern Africa, especially Mozambique
and Madagascar, calumba is also grown in other
tropical regions. The roots are dug up in dry
weather in March and dried.

Parts Used Bark.

Constituents Calumba contains isoquinoline
alkaloids (notably palmatine, columbamine, and
jatrorrhizine), diterpene bitter principles, mucilage,
and volatile oil (about 1%).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Profoundly bitter,
calumba is an extremely good remedy for
underactive or weakened digestion, stimulating
stomach acid production and increasing appetite. It is
a specific for loss of appetite and anorexia, and by
making the stomach more acidic (and therefore
hostile to pathogens) helps to prevent digestive
infections and improve the breakdown and
absorption of foods. It is a useful treatment for
chronic intestinal infection such as dysentery.
Research Calumba’s bitterness is due both to the
bitter principles and the alkaloids. Palmatine and
jatrorrhizine reduce blood pressure, palmatine
is a uterine stimulant, and jatrorrhizine is sedative
and antifungal.

Other Species Calumba has much in common
with gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99), although it owes
its bitterness to a different range of constituents.
Caution Avoid during pregnancy.

Juglans cinerea (Juglandaceae)

Butternut

Description Deciduous tree growing to
100 ft (30 m). Has gray bark, long leaves with
many leaflets, male catkins and female flowers,
and an oval-shaped fruit containing a hard
dark-colored nut.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
American forests, butternut is cultivated for its
timber in other temperate regions. The bark is
collected in autumn.

Part Used Inner bark.

Constituents Contains naphthaquinones
(including juglone, juglandin, and juglandic acid),
a fixed and a volatile oil, and tannins. The
naphthaquinones have an approximately similar
laxative effect to the anthraquinones found in
plants such as senna ( Cassia senna, p. 75) and
Chinese rhubarb ( Rheum palmatum, p. 126).
Juglone is purgative, antimicrobial, antiparasitic,
and cancer-inhibiting.

History & Folklore Butternut bark was
employed by Native Americans and New World
settlers as a laxative and tonic remedy. Butternut

was used to treat a variety of conditions, including
rheumatic and arthritic joints, headaches, dysentery,
constipation, and wounds.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Used to this
day as a laxative and tonic, butternut is a valuable
remedy for chronic constipation, gently encouraging
regular bowel movements. It is especially beneficial
if combined with a carminative herb, such as ginger
(Zingiber officinale, p. 155) or angelica (Angelica
archangelica, p. I 68). Butternut also lowers
cholesterol levels, and promotes the clearance
of waste products by the liver. It has a positive
reputation in treating intestinal worms, and, being
antimicrobial and astringent, it has been prescribed
as a treatment for dysentery.

Related Species Black walnut (/. nigra ) is used
in the same way as butternut. The bark of the
walnut tree (/. regia ) is used as a gentle purgative,
and is also applied to skin afflictions. The nut is
used in Chinese herbal medicine as a kidney tonic.
The nuts of both varieties are highly nutritious,
lower cholesterol levels, and contain significant
quantities of alpha-linolenic acid.

Juniperus communis
(Cupressaceae)

Juniper

Description Coniferous shrub sometimes
growing to 49 ft (15 m). Has slender twigs with
whorls of needle-like leaves, yellow male and blue
female flowers on separate plants, and spherical
blue-black fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Juniper is found in
Europe, southwestern Asia up to the Himalayas,
and North America, where it grows from southern
coastal sites to more northerly moorland and
mountainous regions. The ripe fruit (berries) is
gathered in autumn.

Parts Used Fruit, essential oil.

Constituents Juniper contains 1-2% volatile oil,
consisting of over 60 compounds, which include
myrcene, sabinene, alpha- and beta-pinene, and
cineole. Juniper also contains tannins, diterpenes,
sugars, resin, and vitamin C.

History & Folklore Juniper is the main
flavoring used in gin. Juniper berries are still mostly
gathered from the wild. In formertimes, sprigs of
juniper flung into the fire were thought to protect
against evil spirits.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Juniper is tonic,
diuretic, and strongly antiseptic within the urinary
tract. It is a valuable remedy for cystitis, and helps
relieve fluid retention, but should be avoided in
cases of kidney disease. In the digestive system,
juniper is warming and settling, easing colic and
supporting the function of the stomach. Taken
internally or applied externally, juniper is helpful

LACTUCA V IR 0 S A

in the treatment of chronic arthritis, gout, and
rheumatic conditions. Applied externally as
a diluted essential oil, it has a slightly warming
effect on the skin and is thought to promote
the removal of waste products from underlying
tissues. Juniper also stimulates menstruation and
tends to increase menstrual bleeding.

Related Species Oil of Cade is produced from
J. oxycedrus and is applied to treat skin rashes. Savin
(/. sobina) is toxic and a powerful abortifacient.
The Japanese J. rigida is used as a diuretic.
Cautions Do not use juniper during pregnancy
or if prone to heavy menstrual bleeding. Do not
take if suffering from a kidney infection or kidney
disease. Do not take the essential oil internally
except under professional supervision.

Self-help Use Urinary infections, p. 3 14.

K. pinnata syn. K. africana
(Bignoniaceae)

Kigelia,

African Sausage Tree

Description Semi-deciduous tree growing to
80 ft (25 m) with smooth, gray-brown bark and
brown-purple flowers. The tree gets its name
from the spectacular sausage-shaped fruit, up
to 3 ft (I m) in length, which hangs from a rope¬
like stalk and weighs up to 22 lb (10 kg).
Habitat & Cultivation Kigelia grows
throughout sub-Saharan Africa but is native to
the eastern half of the continent from Tanzania
to South Africa. The tree is cultivated from seed
or cuttings and flowers after 6 years. The fruit is
harvested when ripe.

Parts Used Fruit pulp, leaves, bark, roots.

Constituents Kigelia fruit contains norviburtinal,
coumarins, iridoids, flavonoids, fatty acids, sterols,
glycosides, and napthaquinones. Norviburtinal has
tumor-reducing activity, the iridoids and sterols are
anti-inflammatory, the flavonoids are antifungal,
and the napthaquinones are thought to
be cytotoxic.

History & Folklore Prized by traditional
healers throughout sub-Saharan Africa, kigelia has
been put to many uses. The Shona of southern
Africa use the bark or root to treat skin infections
and ulcers, toothache, backache, and pneumonia.

In Central Africa, the unripe fruit is used as a dressing
for wounds, hemorrhoids, and rheumatism.

In West Africa, the leaves are given for stomach
and kidney problems, and the fruit is used as a
purgative and applied as a paste to sores. Kigelia
is commonly included in traditional herbal
formulations for malaria.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Thanks to the
knowledge and experience of African traditional
healers, kigelia is now understood to be a valuable
remedy for skin problems, particularly sores and
ulcers, produced by bacterial and fungal infection.
Kigelia has been described as a “natural antibacterial.”
Given its marked anti-inflammatory and wound
healing properties, kigelia is also being investigated
as a skin toner and restorer, as well as potential
treatment for skin disorders such as eczema,
psoriasis, and solar keratosis (a precancerous skin
problem caused by overexposure to sunlight).
Various patents exist for kigelia products, and
overtime kigelia may become widely known as
a key herbal resource for the skin.

Kigelia is a key remedy for treating skin problems.

O Cautions Take kigelia internally only under
professional guidance. Do not take during
pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Krameria triandra (Krameriaceae)

Rhatany

Description Dense evergreen shrub growing
to 3 ft (90 cm). Has a deep root, oblong leaves,
and large red flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Rhatany is found
in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia on western slopes
of the Andes at altitudes of 3,000-9,800 ft
(900-3,000 m). The root is unearthed throughout
the year.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Rhatany contains 10-20%
tannins, including phlobaphene, benzofurans,
and n-methyltyrosine.

History & Folklore A traditional South
American remedy, rhatany was used by indigenous
peoples as an astringent and a tooth preservative.
Its Spanish name, raiz para los dientes (root for the
teeth), points to this traditional usage.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Rhatany is
astringent and antimicrobial. It is a useful remedy
taken principally for problems affecting the
gastrointestinal tract. It is most commonly used
for diarrhea and dysentery. In addition, rhatany
makes a good mouthwash and gargle for bleeding
and infected gums, mouth ulcers, and sore throats.
The plant’s astringency makes it useful in the form
of an ointment, suppository, or wash for treating
hemorrhoids. Rhatany may also be applied to
wounds to help staunch blood flow, to varicose
veins, and over areas of capillary fragility that may
be prone to easy bruising.

Related Species The Mexican K. cystisoides
is an astringent remedy used in much the same way
as rhatany. Another species native to North and
Central America, K. parvifolia, was used by the
Papago as an eyewash.

Lactuca virosa (Lamiaceae)

Wild Lettuce

Description Hollow-stemmed biennial growing
to about 4 ft (1.2 m). Has broad spiny leaves and
clusters of pale yellow composite flowers. All parts
of the plant exude a white milky latex.

Habitat & Cultivation Common throughout
Europe, wild lettuce grows in open areas, along
roadsides, and in hedges. It is gathered when
in flower in late summer.

Parts Used Leaves, latex, seeds.

Constituents The latex contains sesquiterpene
lactones (including lactucopicrin and lactucerin);

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

LAMIUM ALBUM

the leaves also contain flavonoids and coumarins.
The sesquiterpene lactones have a sedative effect.
History & Folklore In Assyrian herbal
medicine, lettuce seeds were reportedly used with
cumin ( Cuminum cyminum, p. 197) as a poultice
for the eyes. Dioscorides (I st century ce) wrote
that the plant’s effect resembled that of the opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum, p. 244).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Wild lettuce is a
safe sedative that can be given to adults and children
to encourage a sound night’s sleep or to calm
overactivity or overstimulation. Most commonly
it is recommended for excitability in children. It is
also taken to treat coughs, often in combination
with herbs such as licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra,
p. 101). Wild lettuce is thought to lower the libido.
It may also be used to relieve pain.

Research A 201 I Egyptian clinical trial found
that lettuce seed oil improved sleep in people
suffering from insomnia. Lettuce seed oil has
traditionally been used in Egypt for sleep problems.
Related Species Garden lettuce (/_. sativa) may
be used like wild lettuce, but has a much weaker
therapeutic action.

Lamium album (Lamiaceae)

White Deadnettle

Description Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm).
Has a square stem, toothed oval leaves, and
clusters of white double-lipped flowers.

White deadnettle is used to treat gynecological
conditions.

Habitat & Cultivation White deadnettle
is native to and widespread in Europe and
central and northern Asia. It thrives in fields
and in open areas. It is gathered when in
flower in summer.

Parts Used Flowering tops.

Constituents White deadnettle contains
226 a saponin, flavones, mucilage, and tannins.

History & Folklore Deadnettle is so called
because it resembles true nettle (Urtica dioica,
p. 146), without the stinging hairs. It was also known
as archangel, a plant “to make the heart merry,
to make a good colour in the face, and to refresh
the vital spirits” (John Gerard, The Herball, 1597).
Medicinal Actions & Uses White deadnettle
is astringent and demulcent. It is chiefly used as
a uterine tonic, to arrest intermenstrual bleeding,
and to reduce excessive menstrual flow. It is also
a traditional treatment for abnormal vaginal
discharge. The herb is sometimes taken to relieve
painful periods. Its astringency helps treat diarrhea,
and, used externally, it can relieve hemorrhoids and
varicose veins.

Larix decidua

syn. L. europaea (Pinaceae)

Larch

Description Deciduous conifer growing to 165 ft
(50 m). Has clusters of needle-like leaves, male and
female flowers, and small, light brown cones.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Alps
and the Carpathian mountains of eastern Europe,
larch grows to altitudes of 6,600 ft (2,000 m). It is
widely cultivated for its timber. The resin is tapped in
autumn; the bark is collected when the tree is felled.
Parts Used Inner bark, resin.

Constituents Larch contains lignans, resins,
and volatile oil (consisting mainly of alpha- and
beta-pinene and limonene).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Larch has
astringent, diuretic, and antiseptic properties.

The bark may be used to treat bladder and urinary
tubule infections such as cystitis and urethritis,
and respiratory problems, including bronchitis.

The resin is applied to wounds, where it protects
and counters infection. A decoction of the bark
is used to soothe eczema and psoriasis.

Caution Do not take larch if suffering from
kidney disease.

Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae)

Chaparral,

Creosote Bush

Description Thorny shrub growing to 614 ft
(2 m), with small finely divided leaves.

Habitat & Cultivation Chaparral is found
in large numbers in the deserts of the
southwestern U.S. and Mexico.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Chaparral contains about 1 2%
resin and lignans, including nordihydroguaiauretic

acid. The latter is reportedly harmful to the lymph
glands and kidneys, though recent research shows
that it has beneficial antidiabetic properties. U.S.
research published in 1996 demonstrated that
other lignans have antiviral activity against HIV.
History & Folklore Widely used by Native
Americans, chaparral was taken in the form of a
decoction to treat stomach troubles and diarrhea.
Young twigs were used for toothache. The leaves
were applied as a poultice for respiratory problems
and as a wash for skin problems.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Until the 1960s,
chaparral remained in wide use in the U.S., with an
average of 10 tons (9.07 tonnes) consumed each
year. It was thought to be a beneficial remedy for
rheumatic disease, venereal infections, urinary
infections, and certain types of cancer, especially
leukemia. Chaparral was also taken internally for
skin afflictions such as acne and eczema, and applied
as a lotion to sores, wounds, and rashes. In the
early 1990s, sales of chaparral were banned in the
U.S. and Britain due to concern over its potential
toxic effect on the liver. It now seems likely that this
is another herb that can, in rare cases, cause liver
damage, as with some conventional medicines. In
view of the uncertainty about its safety, any
potential benefit from taking the herb must be
weighed against the risks.

Related Species The North American
L. divaricata, a close relative of chaparral, contains
lignans, which have been shown to inhibit lymphoid
tumor growth with no apparent harmful effect on
normal lymphatic tissue.

O Cautions Only take chaparral on
professional advice. People with a history of liver
disease should never take chaparral.

Laurus nobilis (Lauraceae)

Bay Laurel

Description Aromatic evergreen shrub or tree
growing to 65 ft (20 m). Has leathery, dark green
leaves, small yellow male and female flowers, and
shiny black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
Mediterranean countries, bay laurel prefers damp
and shady sites. It is also a popular garden herb,
cultivated largely for culinary use. The leaves are
picked year round.

Parts Used Leaves, essential oil.

Constituents Bay laurel contains up to 3%
volatile oil (including 30-50% cineole, linalool,
alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol acetate, mucilage,
tannin, and resin).

History & Folklore In ancient Greece, bay
laurel was used in divination by the Delphic Oracle.
From ancient Rome comes the tradition that the
sudden withering of a bay laurel tree bodes disaster

L E P I D I U A/I V I R G I N I C U M

for the household. In ancient Rome, bay laurel
leaves were used as a medicine, a spice, and a
decorative garland during the December festival of
Saturnalia. Bay laurel was sacred to the gods Apollo
and Asclepius, who together oversaw healing and
medicine. The herb was thought to be greatly
protective and healing. An infusion of the leaves
was taken for its warming and tonic effect on the
stomach and bladder, and a plaster made from
the leaves was used to relieve wasp and bee stings.

Bay laurel

adorned victors in
ancient Greece.

Lawsonia inermis
syn. L. alba (Lythraceae)

Henna

Description Heavily scented evergreen shrub
or tree growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has narrow
pointed leaves, clusters of small white or pink
flowers, and blue-black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Middle
East, North Africa, and the Indian subcontinent,
henna grows in sunny areas and is widely
cultivated for use as a hair restorative and dye.
The leaves are picked during the growing season.
Parts Used Leaves, bark.

Constituents Henna contains coumarins,
naphthaquinones (including lawsone), flavonoids,
sterols, and tannins.

History & Folklore Henna has been used for
thousands of years in North Africa and Asia as a red
dye and as a scent. Mummies were wrapped in
^ henna-dyed cloth in ancient Egypt. In the Middle
East and India, the leaves have traditionally
been used to make a pigment for dyeing
intricate linear patterns on the fingers, palms,
and feet. The leaves have also been used to dye not
only human hair but the manes and tails of horses.
Before meeting Antony, Cleopatra reputedly
soaked the sails of her barge in heady henna flower oil.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Used mainly
within Ayurvedic and Unani medicine, henna leaves
are commonly taken as a gargle for sore throats,
and as an infusion or decoction for diarrhea and
dysentery. The leaves are astringent, prevent
hemorrhaging, and strongly promote menstrual
flow. A decoction of the bark is used to treat liver
problems. Applied in the form of a plaster, henna
treats fungal infections, acne, and boils.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Bay laurel is used
mainly to treat upper digestive tract disorders
and to ease arthritic aches and pains. It is settling
to the stomach and has atonic effect, stimulating
the appetite and the secretion of digestive juices.
When used as an ingredient in cooking, bay laurel
leaves promote the digestion and absorption
of food. The leaves have much the same kind of
positive effect as spearmint (Mentha spicata) and
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, p. 128) in assisting
the breakdown of heavy food, especially meat.
Bay laurel has also been used to promote the
onset of menstrual periods. The essential oil is
chiefly employed as a friction rub, being well
diluted in a carrier oil and massaged into aching
muscles and joints. A decoction of the leaves
may be added to a bath to ease aching limbs.
Cautions Never take bay laurel essential oil
internally. An allergic reaction may result from
external use, therefore the oil should only be
applied in very dilute (2%) concentrations.

Leonurus cardiaca (Lamiaceae)

Motherwort

Description Perennial herb growing to 5 ft
(1.5 m). Has toothed, palm-shaped leaves and
double-lipped pink flowers blossoming in clusters.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to central
Asia, motherwort is now naturalized in much
of Europe and North America. It grows wild in
woodlands, in open areas, and along roadsides.

It is also cultivated as a garden plant. Motherwort
is harvested when it comes into flower in summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Motherwort contains alkaloids
(including L-stachydrine), an iridoid (leonurine),
diterpenes, flavonoids, caffeic acid, and tannins.
History & Folklore As its species name
cardiaca indicates, motherwort has long been
considered a heart remedy. The herbalist Nicholas

Culpeper stated that “there is no better herb to
drive away melancholy vapours from the heart, to
strengthen it and make the mind cheerful” (1652).
The Italian physician and herbalist Pierandrea
Matteoli held it “useful for palpitations and a
pounding heart, spasms and paralysis... [it] thins
thick and viscid humours [and] stimulates urine
and menstrual bleeding” (1548).

Medicinal Actions & Uses A remedy for
the heart and nerves and often prescribed for
palpitations, motherwort strengthens heart function,
especially where it is weak. Antispasmodic and
sedative, the herb promotes relaxation ratherthan
drowsiness. However; motherwort stimulates the
muscles of the uterus, and is particularly suitable for
delayed periods, period pain, and premenstrual
syndrome (especially if shock or distress is a factor). It
should not be used if menstrual bleeding is heavy.

Motherwort has been used to treat palpitations since
at least the 16 th century.

Related Species Two East Asian species,

L. heterophyllus (from China) and L. sibiricus
(from Siberia), are both used therapeutically
for the same purposes as motherwort.

L. heterophyllus appears to lower blood pressure
and to induce menstruation.

Cautions Do not take motherwort during
pregnancy. It should also be avoided where
there is heavy menstrual bleeding.

Self-help Uses Menstrual problems—
irregular cycle, p. 3 15; Panic attacks, p. 302.

Lepidium virginicum (Brassicaceae)

Virginia Peppergrass

Description Annual herb growing to about
2 ft (60 cm). Has slender lance-shaped leaves
and small white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Virginia peppergrass is
native to eastern North America and the Caribbean,

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

and is naturalized in Australia. The leaves are
gathered in spring and are consumed as food. The
seedpods can serve as a subsitute for black pepper.
Parts Used Leaves, root.

Constituents Virginia peppergrass contains high
levels of vitamin C.

History & Folklore The Menominee of
eastern North America applied a lotion of Virginia
peppergrass (or a bruised fresh plant) to poison
ivy eruptions.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Virginia
peppergrass is nutritious and generally detoxifying.
It has been used to treat vitamin C deficiency and
diabetes, and to expel intestinal worms. The herb
is also diuretic and of benefit in easing rheumatic
pain. The root is taken to treat excess phlegm
within the respiratory tract.

Related Species Maca (L. meyenii ) is a
low-growing Andean perennial. The root is valued
as a staple food and medicine by Andean peoples,
notably to support immune function and for
hormonal disorders including sterility. Maca is
now commonly available in supplement stores and
has acquired a reputation as atonic, hormone
balancer, and aphrodisiac.

228

Leptandra virginica

syn. Veronica strum virginicum

(Scrophulariaceae)

Black Root

Description Perennial herb growing to 3 ft
(I m). Has an erect stem, lance-shaped leaves,
and white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Black root grows across
North America in meadows and woodlands. The
root is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Dried root.

Constituents Black root contains a volatile oil,
saponins, sugars, and tannins.

History & Folklore Known to the Native
Americans of Missouri and Delaware as a
violent purgative, black root was used
in moderate doses as a laxative, a
detoxifier, and a remedy for liver
disorders. In the 19th century
Physiomedicalist tradition, black
root was taken to stimulate
bile production.

Medicinal Actions & Uses

Black root is used in small doses
today as a laxative and a remedy
for liver and gallbladder disorders.
The herb also treats flatulence and bloating, and
eases the discomfort of hemorrhoids, chronic
constipation, and rectal prolapse.

Cautions Do not use the fresh root. Do not
take during pregnancy.

LEPTANDRA VIRGINICA

Levisticum officinale
syn. Ligusticum levisticum
(Apiaceae)

Lovage

Description Perennial growing to QA ft (2 m).
Has glossy, toothed compound leaves, greenish-
yellow flowers, and tiny oval seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Lovage is found in
southern Europe and southwestern Asia. It thrives
on sunny mountain slopes. The leaves are gathered
in spring or early summer, the seeds in late summer,
the root in autumn.

Parts Used Root, seeds, leaves.

Constituents Lovage root contains a volatile
oil (about 70% phthalides), coumarins (including
bergapten, psoralen, and umbelliferone), alkynes,
plant acids, sterols, resins, and gums. The phthalides
are sedative and anticonvulsant.

History & Folklore The Trotula texts, written
in Salerno during the 12th century, recommend
lovage for skin lightening. The Irish herbalist K’Eogh
follows this recommendation: “lovage clears the
sight and removes spots, freckles and redness
from the face.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Lovage is a
warming and tonic herb for the digestive and
respiratory systems. It treats indigestion, poor
appetite, gas and colic, and bronchitis. Lovage
is significantly diuretic and antimicrobial and is
commonly taken for urinary tract problems. It also
promotes menstruation and relieves period pain.

Its warming nature improves poor circulation.
Related Species The Chinese chuan xiong
(Ligusticum chuonxiong) is used principally as a
means to bring on absent menstrual periods
and to treat period pain. The Chinese goo ben
(Ligusticum sinense) is also used for pain.
Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. Do
not take if you suffer from kidney disease. Can
increase sensitivity to sunlight.

Self-help Use Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 3 15.

Lippia alba (Verbenaceae)

Lippia,

Bushy Lippia, Prontoalivio

Description Multi-branched, square-stemmed,
aromatic shrub growing to 5 ft (1.5 m), with
opposite leaves and small white or pink flowers
close to the leaf axils.

Habitat & Cultivation Lippia grows
throughout South and Central America from
northern Argentina to the southern U.S. It
is a common garden herb, and may be grown
from seed or cuttings, the latter being used for
commercial cultivation.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Lippia leaves contain about
0.15% volatile oil with different plant strains, or
chemotypes, producing several essential oils with
quite a distinct range of compounds, notably citral
and carvone. The citral chemotype oil is thought
to have strong anti -Candida activity.

History & Folklore In many parts of
Central and South America, Lippia is valued for
its ability to resolve common illnesses, such as
stomach upset, nausea, gas and bloating, coughs,
colds, sore throat, and headache. Its Colombian
name, Prontoalivio (meaning “quick relief”) points
to its place in popular Latin American medicine.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Lippia has
pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, relaxant, and
antispasmodic properties, making it useful in many
non-severe health problems. In Brazil, where it is
regulated as a medicinal herb, the herb is typically
used for upper digestive problems, coughs, colds,
and bronchitis, as well as for high blood pressure
and as a sedative. The herb has been little
researched, though a small clinical trial
in Brazil found it effective in treating migraine
headache. The essential oil is increasingly used
in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations,
for example, within Europe, and has significant
antifungal and antibacterial activity on the skin.
Related Species The sweet tasting L. dulcis has
broadly similar medicinal use and is found across
Central America and the Caribbean. See also
Lemon Verbena (Lippia citriodora, following entry).

Lippia citriodora syn. Aloysia
triphylla (Verbenaceae)

Lemon Verbena

Description Deciduous shrub growing to 6% ft
(2 m). Has strongly scented lance-shaped leaves and
clusters of tubular, pale green to mauve flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Lemon verbena
is native to South America. It is cultivated in
temperate climates as an aromatic, ornamental
plant and for its leaves, which are used to make
herbal tea. The leaves are gathered in late summer.
Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Lemon verbena contains a volatile
oil (mainly consisting of citral, cineole, limonene, and
geraniole), mucilage, tannins, and flavonoids.

History & Folklore Lemon verbena was
introduced to Europe in 1784. In Spain, France, and
elsewhere in Europe, the infusion is a popular drink.
Medicinal Actions & Uses An undervalued
medicinal herb, lemon verbena shares qualities with
lemon balm (Melissa officinalis, p. I 13). Both herbs
contain a strong lemon-scented volatile oil that has
calming and digestive properties. Lemon verbena
has a gentle sedative action and a reputation for

LO N I C E RA SPP.

soothing abdominal discomfort. Its tonic effect on
the nervous system is less pronounced than that
of lemon balm, but it nonetheless helps to lift the
spirits and counter depression.

Related Species Yerba dulce (L. dulcis ), native
to Mexico, is used therapeutically as a demulcent
and expectorant remedy. In Mexico, many other
Lippio species are used for their antispasmodic,
period-inducing, and stomach-soothing properties.
L. adoensis is drunk as a tea in West Africa. See also
lippia ( Lippia olbo, preceding entry).

Self-help Use Gas & bloating, p. 306.

Liquidambar orientalis
(Hamamelidaceae)

Levant Storax

Description Deciduous tree growing to 20 ft
(6 m). Has purplish-gray bark, lobed leaves, and
small single yellow-white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Levant storax is
found in southwestern Turkey. Storax balsam,
a viscid gray-brown liquid, is extracted from the
bark, which is pried off the tree in autumn.

Part Used Bark extract.

Levant storax is used to relieve congestive chest problems.

Constituents Levant storax contains cinnamic
acid, cinnamyl cinnamate, phenylpropyl cinnamate,
triterpene acids, and a volatile oil.

History & Folklore Levant storax has been
the Liquidambar species most commonly used
medicinally since the 19th century. Levant storax
is also employed as a fixative for perfumes.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Levant storax
balsam acts as both an irritant and an expectorant
within the respiratory tract, and it is one of the
ingredients of Friar’s Balsam, an expectorant
mixture that is inhaled to stimulate a productive
cough. In addition, levant storax balsam is applied
externally to encourage the healing of skin diseases
and problems such as scabies, wounds, and ulcers.

Mixed with witch hazel ( Hamamelis virginiana,
p. 102) and rosewater (Rosa species ), levant storax
makes an astringent face lotion. In China, storax
balsam is used to clear mucus congestion and to
relieve pain and constriction in the chest.

Related Species American storax (L. styraciflua),
which grows mainly in Honduras but is also found
farther north, has been used since the time of the
Maya for its healing properties.

Lobaria pulmonaria
(Stictaceae)

Tree Lungwort

Description Gray or light green lichen with
forked irregular lobes measuring up to 5 A in
(1.5 cm) across.

Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout
Europe, tree lungwort grows on trees and rocks
in woodland areas. It is gathered year round.

Part Used Lichen.

Constituents Tree lungwort contains a variety
of plant acids (including stictic and sticinic acid),
fatty acids, mucilage, and tannins.

History & Folklore Tree lungwort has been
used since ancient times as a remedy for lung
problems. The Italian physician and herbalist
Pierandrea Matteoli (1501-77) recommended it for
healing pulmonary ulcers and for treating blood-
flecked phlegm. It was also used to treat wounds,
heal ulcers, reduce excessive menstrual bleeding,
relieve dysentery, and halt “choleric vomiting.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses A beneficial but
underused remedy, tree lungwort has expectorant
and tonic properties. It aids in clearing congested
mucus, reduces phlegm, and helps to increase the
appetite. In a decoction sweetened with honey, it
is appropriate for all conditions that are marked by
chronic respiratory infections, especially coughs
and bronchitis. The plant also treats asthma,
pleurisy, and emphysema. Being astringent and
demulcent, tree lungwort makes a useful
treatment for pulmonary ulcers as well as for a
variety of gastrointestinal problems. It is highly
suitable for treating ailments in children.

Lomatium dissectum (Apiaceae)

Lomatium,

Toza

Description Erect perennial, growing to 6'A ft
(2 m), with a large woody taproot, divided,
triangular leaves, and flowers in flat-topped umbels.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to coastal
and inland regions of western North America
from California as far north as British Columbia.

Parts Used Root.

Constituents Lomatium contains flavonoids,
coumarins, tetronic acids, and volatile oil.

History & Folklore One of the most
important medicinal plants of the Pacific
Northwest, lomatium was “big medicine” for
Native Americans and widely used for respiratory
infections such as coughs, colds, and flu. In Nevada,
lomatium root was combined with yarrow (Achillea
millefolium, p. 56) to treat sexually transmitted
diseases. In Oregon, a decoction of the root was
applied to horses to rid them of ticks. During the
1917 influenza epidemic an American doctor,
Ernest Krebbs, successfully used lomatium in his
own practice, after noting the effective use of
the herb by Native Americans.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Lomatium is
today used mostly by botanical practitioners in
North America to treat a broad range of viral
infections, from chronic fatigue syndrome to
influenza and herpes infections. A good tonic
herb, it promotes peripheral blood flow and
stimulates immune function. It is usually
combined with other herbs such as echinacea
(Echinacea spp., p. 92) or wild indigo root
(Baptisia tinctoria, p. 176).

Research The tetronic acids have been shown to
be markedly antimicrobial and toxic to fish (Native
Americans used to place the fresh root in streams
or pools in orderto stun fish). Preliminary studies
in Canada and the U.S. suggest that lomatium has
significant antiviral activity.

Cautions A red measles-like rash, which
clears on stopping treatment, may develop
when taking lomatium. Like other members of
the carrot family, lomatium can increase sensitivity
to sunlight.

Lonicera spp. (Caprifoliaceae)

FHoneysuckle,

& Jin Yin FHua

Description A climber growing to 13 ft (4 m)
that is deciduous (honeysuckle, L. caprifolium )
or semi-evergreen (jin yin hua, L.japonica). Has
paired oval leaves, yellow-orange (honeysuckle)
or yellow-white (Jin yin hua ) tubular flowers, and
red (honeysuckle) or black (jin yin hua ) berries.
Habitat & Cultivation Honeysuckle is
native to southern Europe and the Caucasus.

Jin yin hua is native to China and Japan. Both
plants are commonly found growing on walls,
on trees, and in hedges. The flowers and leaves are
gathered in summer just before the flowers open.
Parts Used Flowers, leaves, bark.
Constituents In Europe, L. caprifolium and
L.japonica are often used interchangeably and

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LOPHOPHORA W I L L I A M S I I

contain approximately the same quantity of
volatile oil. Nonetheless, Romanian research
indicates that the Asian species contains a
much wider range of therapeutically active
antiseptic compounds.

History & Folklore Honeysuckle is one of
the Bach Flower Remedies, and in this system
of herbal cures it is believed to counter feelings of
nostalgia and homesickness. Jin yin huo has long
been used in Chinese medicine to “clear heat
and relieve toxicity.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Honeysuckle
flowers from both species can be successfully
used to treat fever, colds, and upper respiratory
tract infections. The leaves are traditionally used
as a gargle for sore throats and as a mouthwash.
In Chinese herbal medicine, honeysuckle finds
frequent use in inflammatory conditions, such
as conjunctivitis, mastitis (inflammation of the
breasts), and rheumatism.

Research Chinese research indicates that the
Asian species has significant antimicrobial activity,
including against the tuberculosis bacillus. Clinical
studies suggest that this species can also help to
lower high blood pressure.

Caution Do not eat the berries, which are
thought to be toxic.

Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae)

Peyote

Description Cactus growing to 2 in (5 cm).

Has a squat gray-green body with tufted hairs,
and pink or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Peyote is native
to northern Mexico and the southwestern region
of the U.S.

Part Used Whole plant.

Peyote is a powerful hallucinogen. It is used in
23 0 Native American ceremonies.

Constituents Peyote contains alkaloids, principally
mescaline, which is a powerful hallucinogen.
History & Folklore Peyote has been used
in Native American religious ceremonies for
over 3,000 years. Its use as a hallucinogen was
popularized by Aldous Huxley in his book
The Doors of Perception.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Peyote is a
shamanistic plant, taken in Native American rituals
to deepen spiritual understanding. It plays an
important part in the emotional and mental state
of the community. It is also used to treat fevers, as
a painkiller for rheumatism, and to treat paralysis. It
is applied as a poultice for fractures, wounds, and
snake bite. Peyote is also used to induce vomiting.
Caution The use of peyote and mescaline is
illegal in most countries.

Luffa cylindrica syn. L. aegyptica
(Cucurbitaceae)

Loofah,

Si Gua Luo (Chinese)

Description Annual vine climbing to 49 ft
(15 m). Has large lobed leaves, tendrils, and
yellow female flowers producing long cylindrical
marrow-like fruit.

Loofah fruit is dried and used in Chinese medicine to treat
muscle and joint pain.

Habitat & Cultivation Loofah is native to
the tropics of Asia and Africa. It is now grown
as a fruit in tropical regions around the world.

It is harvested when ripe in summer.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Loofah contains polysaccharides,
xylan, xylose, and galactan.

History & Folklore Loofah was brought from
India to China in the Tang Dynasty (618-907 ce).

It is best known in the West as a bathroom
accessory—the fibrous skeleton makes a good
skin scrubber.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese
medicine, the inner skeleton of the dried fruit
is used to treat pain in the muscles, joints, chest,
and abdomen. It is prescribed for chest infections
accompanied by fever and pain, and is used to
clear congested mucus. Loofah is also given
to treat painful or swollen breasts.

Research Chinese research indicates that the
fresh vine has a stronger expectorant effect than
the dried fruit. German research (1999) using a
homeopathic preparation of the plant showed it
to be as effective as a standard nasal spray for
relief of hay fever.

Lycopodium clavatum
(Lycopodiaceae)

Club Moss

Description Creeping evergreen moss growing
to 4% in (12 cm). Has numerous straggling
branchlets covered with bright green linear leaves,
and scaly spikes bearing yellow spores.

Habitat & Cultivation Club moss is found
throughout temperate regions of the northern
hemisphere. It is common on mountains and in
moorland. The plant is gathered in summer.

Parts Used Moss, spores.

Constituents Club moss contains about
0.1-0.2% alkaloids (including lycopodine),
polyphenols, flavonoids, and triterpenes.

History & Folklore Club moss
has been used medicinally since at
least the Middle Ages. The whole
plant was employed as a diuretic
to aid in the flushing out of
kidney stones. In Wales, club
moss was used for certain
back problems and for colds
and sore throats. Being strongly
water-resistant, the spores are still
used to coat tablets. The spores ignite
explosively and have been used in
making fireworks.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Club moss is
diuretic, sedative, and antispasmodic, and is
particularly useful for treating chronic urinary
issues. The herb may also be taken for indigestion
and gastritis. The spores can be applied to the skin
to relieve itchiness. Club moss is frequently used in
homeopathic medicine, being prescribed for
headache, liver problems, and digestive symptoms
such as gas and burping.

O Caution Club moss is potentially toxic in
overdose. This plant should only be used with the
supervision of a professional practitioner.

MADHUCA SPP.

Lycopus virginicus (Lamiaceae)

Bugleweed

Description Perennial herb growing to 2 ft
(60cm). Has a square stem, lance-shaped leaves,
and whorls of whitish flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Bugleweed is common
throughout most of North America, thriving close
to water. It is harvested in summer when in flower.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Bugleweed contains phenolic
acids (including derivatives of caffeic, chlorogenic,
and ellagic acids).

History & Folklore In the 19th-century
Physiomedicalist tradition, bugleweed was regarded
as astringent and calming to the nerves, and was
given for loose coughs, internal bleeding, and
urinary incontinence. Herbal practitioners once
considered the plant to be a mild narcotic.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Bugleweed
has sedative properties and today the herb is
principally prescribed to treat an overactive
thyroid gland and the racing heartbeat that often
accompanies this condition. Bugleweed is also
considered an aromatic and tonic astringent
that reduces the production of mucus.

Research Studies indicate that bugleweed and,
to some degree, gipsywort (see Related Species,
below) reduce the activity of the thyroid gland.
Related Species Gipsywort (/_. europaeus), a
European native, has astringent and cardiotonic
properties. It is taken for palpitations and anxiety,
and has been used to lower fever.

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Lysimachia vulgaris (Primulaceae)

Yellow Loosestrife

Description Attractive perennial growing to
3 ft (I m) with whorls of broadly lance-shaped
leaves and bright yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
yellow loosestrife commonly grows in damp
hedgerows and near water. It is also cultivated
as a garden plant. It is gathered when in flower
in summer

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Yellow loosestrife contains a
benzoquinone, triterpenoid saponins, flavonoids,
and tannins.

History & Folklore Pliny (23-79 ce)
recorded that lysimachia, the plant’s Latin name,
was a tribute to King Lysimachus of Sicily, who
discovered its medicinal benefits. The name
“loosestrife” refers to the plant’s reputed power
to prevent conflict, particularly between animals,
and to repel insects. The Greek physician

Dioscorides (40-90 ce) recommended loosestrife
to staunch wounds and for nosebleeds, and noted
that its smoke would drive away snakes and flies.
Medicinal Actions & Uses An astringent
herb, yellow loosestrife is principally used to treat
gastrointestinal conditions such as diarrhea and
dysentery, to stop internal and external bleeding,
and to cleanse wounds. It makes a workable
mouthwash for sore gums and mouth ulcers, and
may be used to treat nosebleeds. Yellow loosestrife
has also been taken as an expectorant.

Related Species The yellow pimpernel
(L. nemorum), another European native, is
astringent and staunches blood. Jin qian cao
(L. christinae), from China, is a diuretic used to
treat urinary pain. A Chinese trial showed that
the latter is also effective in treating both kidney
stones and gallstones.

and along rivers and streams, to altitudes of
3,300 ft (1,000 m). It is gathered when in flower
in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Purple loosestrife contains salicarin,
a glycoside (vitexin), tannins, a volatile oil, mucilage,
and plant sterols.

History & Folklore In 1654, the herbalist
Nicholas Culpeper praised this herb, writing that
“the distilled water is a present remedy for hurts
and blows on the eyes, and for blindness ... it also
cleareth the eyes of dust or any other thing gotten
into them, and preserveth the sight.” A common
plant in Ireland, purple loosestrife was much used
there against diarrhea.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent
purple loosestrife is mainly employed as a
treatment for diarrhea and dysentery. It can be
safely taken by people of all ages; some herbalists
recommend it to help arrest diarrhea in breast¬
feeding babies. The herb may also be used
to treat heavy periods and for inter-menstrual
bleeding. Externally, it is applied as a poultice
or lotion to wounds, leg ulcers, and eczema,
and used to treat excess vaginal discharge and
vaginal itching. Purple loosestrife is now little used
to treat eye problems, but, as Culpeper’s
experience suggests, the herb could be worth
further investigation as a remedy for disorders
of the eyes and vision.

Research In animal experiments, extracts of
the flowers and leaves have been shown to be
hypoglycemic—lowering blood-sugar levels. The
plant is also thought to have antibiotic activity.

Lythrum salicaria (Lythraceae)

Purple Loosestrife

Madhuca spp. (Sapotaceae)

Butter Tree

Description Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m). Has leathery leaves, clusters of scented
white flowers, and greenish fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Madhuca species are
native to central and northern India. The flowers,
leaves, and seeds are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Flowers, seed oil.

Constituents The leaves contain an alkaloid
and a saponin; the seeds a saponin and fixed oil.
History & Folklore Butter tree has been a
source of food and medicine in India for at least
2,000 years. Its flowers are eaten and are
fermented to make alcoholic drinks.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The
expectorant flowers are used to treat chest
problems such as bronchitis. They are also taken
to increase breast-milk production. The leaves are
applied as a poultice to eczema. The seed oil is
laxative and is taken for constipation and to loosen
the stool of hemorrhoid sufferers.

Purple loosestrife is

used to relieve
diarrhea and
dysentery in breast¬
feeding babies.

Description Attractive perennial growing to
about 5 ft (1.5 m). Has straight red stems,
pointed lance-shaped leaves, and spikes
of brilliant purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Purple
loosestrife is native to Europe
but well-established in the
wild in North America.

It thrives in marshes

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

MAGNOLIA OFFICINALIS

Magnolia officinalis (Magnoliaceae)

Magnolia,

Hou Po (Chinese)

Description Deciduous tree growing to 80 ft
(25 m). Has aromatic bark, large leaves, and
fragrant creamy-white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,
magnolia grows wild in mountainous regions. It
is now planted in many parts of the world as an
ornamental tree. The bark is stripped in spring.

232

Magnolia is distinguished by its
beautiful creamy-white flowers.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Magnolia bark contains alkaloids,
coumarins, flavonoids, and lignans. The lignan,
honokiol, found in the bark of several magnolia
species appears to have antitumor and anti¬
anxiety activity. Another lignan, magnolol, has
antibacterial and anti-anxiety activity.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Magnolia bark
is aromatic, warming, and pungent. It relieves
cramping pain and flatulence, and is taken for
abdominal distension, indigestion, loss of appetite,
vomiting, and diarrhea. It is now also used to treat
anxiety, chronic stress, and lowered mood, and as a
neuroprotective remedy that aids memory and
mental function.

Research Research suggests that magnolia bark
extract is antimicrobial and may have specific use
as an oral antiseptic to control bacteria and relieve
bad breath (halitosis). Two Italian clinical studies
found that magnolia extract helped relieve anxiety
and support positive mood in menopausal women.
A 2012 Korean study concluded that magnolia may
be useful in treating Alzheimer’s disease.

Related Species North American species,
notably M grandiflora, are used in much the same
way as magnolia (above), with traditional uses
including for fever and rheumatism.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae)

Common Mallow

Description Biennial growing to 5 ft (1.5 m).
Has a pulpy taproot, 5-lobed scalloped leaves,
and pink to mauve flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Common mallow is
native to Europe and Asia. It is naturalized in the
Americas and Australasia, growing in open areas
and on hedges and fences. The leaves are gathered
in spring, the flowers when in bloom in summer.
Parts Used Leaves, flowers, root.
Constituents Common mallow contains
flavonol glycosides, mucilage, and tannins. The
flowers also contain malvin (an anthocyanin).
History & Folklore The young leaves and
shoots of this plant have been eaten since at
least the 8th century bce. The plant’s many
uses gave rise to the Spanish adage, ‘A
kitchen garden and mallow, sufficient
medicines for a home.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses
Though less useful than marshmallow
(Althaea officinalis, p. 165), common
mallow is an effective demulcent. The flowers
and leaves are emollient and good for sensitive
areas of the skin. It is applied as a poultice to
reduce swelling and draw out toxins. Taken
internally, the leaves reduce gut irritation and
have a laxative effect. When common mallow
is combined with eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus,
p. 96), it makes a good remedy for coughs and
other chest ailments. As with marshmallow, the
root may be given to children to ease teething.

Mandragora officinarum
(Solanaceae)

Mandrake

Description Perennial growing to 2 in (5 cm).
Has a deep branching root, a rosette of broad
floppy leaves, funnel-shaped white to purple
flowers, and yellow fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
Mediterranean region of Europe, mandrake grows
on dry riverbeds. Its leaves are picked in summer.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Mandrake contains 0.4% tropane
alkaloids (hyoscine and hyoscyamine).

History & Folklore Legend held that the
mandrake, on being uprooted, emitted a scream
that was so powerful it could kill the person
harvesting the plant. Consequently, reported one
classical authority, mandrake was pulled up by dogs
that had the stems tied to their tails. The fantastic
powers attributed to the plant were partly due
to the narcotic-like properties of the root. Also

influential was the root’s shape, which often vaguely
resembles the human form. The roots have been
carved and used as talismans for thousands of years,
especially to aid fertility in women, and as a charm
against misfortune. From Roman times onward,
mandrake root bark was used as an anaesthetic
and analgesic, and as a treatment for insanity.

Mandrake's narcotic properties and human-shaped root have
inspired much legend and lore.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Mandrake
has now largely fallen out of use. The herb is
sometimes applied as a poultice or plaster for
rheumatic and arthritic pains, or, as a decoction,
for ulcers and similar kinds of skin disorders.

© Cautions Mandrake is toxic. Do not take
internally. Use externally only under professional
supervision. The plant is subject to legal restrictions
in some countries.

Manihot esculenta
(Euphorbiaceae)

Cassava,

Manioc

Description Shrub growing to 6 'A ft (2 m).

Has fleshy roots, woody stems, large palm-shaped
leaves, and green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Cassava is native to
tropical Central and South America. Possibly the
most grown root crop in the world, bitter and
sweet varieties are grown commercially throughout
the tropics (Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil being the
foremost producers). The plant was first cultivated
in Peru around 4,000 years ago. The root is
unearthed 8 to 24 months after planting.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Cassava contains cyanogenic
glycosides (0.02-0.03% in the bitter varieties,
0.007% in the sweet) and starch.

M E D I C A G 0 S AT I V A

Cassava is a staple food in many tropical regions
of the world.

History & Folklore Bitter cassava has large
quantities of highly toxic glycosides, and must be
carefully soaked and cooked before it is safe to eat.
(Sweet cassava is safe to eat without such processing.)
Tapioca is a native Brazilian name for the processed
root, which is used in commercial food preparation
as a thickening agent. The Witoto of the Colombian
Amazon poison fish with the water used to wash
bitter cassava. The Makuna use the wash water
to treat scabies.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cassava root is
easily digestible and makes a suitable, if low-protein,
food for convalescence. The bitter variety may
be used to treat scabies, diarrhea, and dysentery.
Cassava flour may be used to help dry weeping
skin. In China, a poultice is made of cassava, wheat
flour, and ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155) to draw
out pus when infection is present.

Caution Raw bitter cassava is toxic and has
caused many deaths. The root must be carefully
soaked and cooked before eating.

Maranta arundinacea
(Marantaceae)

Arrowroot

Description Perennial growing to 61 A ft (2 m).
Has a creeping rhizome, many long-stemmed oval
leaves, and flowering stems with clusters of creamy-
white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern
South America and the Caribbean islands, arrowroot
is cultivated mostly on the island of St. Vincent. The
rhizome is unearthed 10 to I I months after planting.
Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Arrowroot contains 25-27%
neutral starch.

History & Folklore In Central America, the
Maya made the root into a poultice for smallpox
sores, and an infusion for urinary infections.
Arrowroot was a staple food of the Arawak people
of the Caribbean. The plant reputedly gets its name
from its use to treat poisoned arrow wounds—
presumably as a drawing poultice.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Arrowroot is
used in herbal medicine in much the same manner
as slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145), as a soothing
demulcent and a nutrient of benefit in convalescence
and for those with weak digestions. It helps to relieve
acidity, indigestion, and colic, and is mildly laxative.
It may be applied as an ointment or poultice mixed
with antiseptic herbs such as myrrh (Commiphora
molmol, p. 85).

Self-help Use Acidity & indigestion, p. 307.

Marrubium vulgare (Lamiaceae)

White Horehound

Description Square-stemmed perennial
growing to about 20 in (50 cm). Has toothed,
downy leaves and double-lipped white flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
white horehound is naturalized in North and
South America. It flourishes in dry, bare, or open
areas, and is gathered in spring.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents White horehound
contains the diterpenes marrubiin
(0.3-1.0%) and marrubenol,
tannins, and 0.06% volatile oil.

Marrubiin is thought to be
chiefly responsible for the
herb’s expectorant and bitter
activity. It also acts on the heart
to correct an irregular heartbeat.

History & Folklore White
horehound has been a remedy for
chest problems since ancient times, perhaps
most frequently taken as a syrup made with
honey or sugar. The Greek physician Dioscorides
(40-90 ce) recommended a decoction of white
horehound as a treatment for tuberculosis,
asthma, and coughs.

Medicinal Actions & Uses White horehound
is helpful for wheeziness, bronchitis, bronchiectasis
(a damaged air passage within the lung), bronchial
asthma, non-productive coughs, and whooping
cough. The herb apparently causes the secretion
of a more fluid mucus, which is readily cleared
by coughing. As a bitter tonic, white horehound
increases the appetite and supports the function
of the stomach. It is widely used in Mexico to
help control type 2 diabetes. The herb may also
act to normalize heart rhythm, improving
its regularity.

Dried herb

Marsdenia condurango
syn. Gonolobus condurango
(Asclepiadaceae)

Condurango

Description Climbing vine growing to 33 ft
(10 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and funnel-
shaped, white-green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Condurango is native
to deciduous forests of the Andes in Peru and
Ecuador. It generally grows at altitudes between
3,300-6,600 ft (1,000-2,000 m). The bark is
collected year round.

Parts Used Bark, latex.

Constituents Condurango bark contains
glycosides (based on condurangogenins), a volatile
oil, and phytosterols.

History & Folklore Early in the last century,
condurango was erroneously yet widely believed
to be a remedy for cancer.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The bark’s
main effect is to stimulate stomach secretions.

It is often used in South American folk medicine
as a potent bitter and digestive tonic. Condurango
is a specific treatment for nervous indigestion
and anorexia nervosa, since its bitterness slowly
increases the appetite as well as the stomach’s
ability to process more food. The herb is also
thought to stimulate the liver and pancreas, and
may be taken for liver disorders. Condurango
also encourages menstruation. The caustic
white latex has been applied topically to
remove warts.

Research The condurangogenins in
condurango may act to counter tumors.

The whole plant, however, does not seem
to impede cancer development.

Caution The latex is poisonous and should not
be taken internally.

Medicago sativa (Fabaceae)

Alfalfa,

Lucerne

Description Perennial herb growing to 32 in
(80 cm). Has 3-lobed leaves, flowers that range
in color from yellow to violet-blue, and spiraling
seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
Asia, and North Africa, alfalfa is found in meadows
and in both open and cultivated areas. Grown as
a fodder crop in temperate climates, it is harvested
in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, seeds, sprouting seeds.
Constituents Alfalfa contains isoflavones,
coumarins, alkaloids, vitamins, and porphyrins.

The isoflavones and coumarins are estrogenic.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

MELALEUCA LEUCADENDRON

Alfalfa has been cultivated for centuries for its nutritional
and medicinal properties.

History & Folklore Though mostly used as
an animal feed, alfala seeds have been consumed
as food for thousands of years. Pliny (23-79 ce)
records that alfalfa was brought to Greece by
Darius, King of Persia (55CM86 bce), during his
attempt to conquer Athens.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Alfalfa is perhaps
more therapeutically useful as a food than a
medicine as the seeds are taken to help lower
cholesterol levels. In view of alfalfa’s estrogenic
activity, it can prove useful in treating problems
relating to menstruation and menopause.
Cautions Do not take alfalfa alongside the
anticoagulant medication warfarin. Avoid sprouted
seeds in compromised immune states. Using large
amounts is not advisable in pregnancy or in
autoimmune diseases.

Melaleuca leucadendron
(Myrtaceae)

Cajuput

Description Aromatic, evergreen tree growing
to 130 ft (40 m). Has peeling bark, pale green
oval leaves, and clusters of small white flowers
on long spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Southeast
Asia, cajuput is cultivated for its essential oil and
timber. The leaves and twigs are gathered
throughout the year.

Part Used Essential oil.

Constituents The volatile oil contains
terpenoids, mainly cineole (50-60%), beta-pinene,
alpha-terpineol, and others. Cineole is strongly
antiseptic. Early investigations suggest the fruit
may have antiviral properties.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cajuput is
normally combined with other essential oils such as
234 eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus globulus, p. 96). Its antiseptic

Habitat & Cultivation Melilot is native to
Europe, North Africa, and temperate regions
of Asia, and is naturalized in North America. It
grows in dry and open areas. It is harvested in
late spring.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Melilot contains flavonoids,
coumarins, resin, tannins, and volatile oil. If allowed
to spoil, the plant produces dicoumarol, a powerful
anticoagulant.

History & Folklore The Irish herbalist
K’Eogh reported in 1735, “a gentlewoman of my
acquaintance ... had a swelling for a year or more
on her right side, which was cured by three or four
times rubbing the grieved part with an oil made of
this herb.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses As with horse
chestnut (Aesculus hippocostonum, p. 58), long-term
use of melilot—internally or externally—can help
varicose veins and hemorrhoids. Melilot also helps
reduce the risk of phlebitis and thrombosis. The
plant is mildly sedative and antispasmodic, and is
given for insomnia (especially in children) and anxiety.
It has been used to treat flatulence, indigestion,
bronchitis, problems associated with menopause,
and rheumatic pains.

Cautions Do not take melilot if using
anticoagulants. If harvested from the wild,
melilot should be dried or used immediately,
as the spoiled plant is toxic.

Mentha haplocalyx (Lamiaceae)

Bo EHe (Chinese),

Corn Mint

Description Perennial herb growing to 2 ft
(60 cm). Has a square stem, oval toothed leaves,
and whorls of pale lilac flowers growing from
the leaf axils.

Habitat & Cultivation Bo he is native to
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere,
and is widely cultivated in China. Harvested 2-3
times a year, the best crops are in early summer
and early autumn.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Bo he contains a volatile oil
comprising mainly menthol (up to 95%) with
menthone, menthyl acetate, camphene, limonene,
and other terpenoids.

History & Folklore Bo he was first mentioned
in Grandfather Lei's Discussion of Herb Preparation
(c. 470 ce). A 1 5th-century Chinese prescription
recommends bo he for dysentery with blood.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese
herbal medicine (see pp. 40-43) bo he is a popular
treatment for colds, sore throats, sore mouth and
tongue, and a host of other conditions ranging from

properties treat colds, sore throats, coughs, and,
especially, chest infections. The diluted oil may
either be steam-inhaled or applied to the chest
or throat to treat laryngitis, tracheitis, and
bronchitis. As cajuput stimulates the circulation
and is antispasmodic, it is used as a friction rub
for rheumatic joints and neuralgia.

Related Species Niaouli (M vi rid ifora), of New
Caledonia, has properties similar to those of cajuput.
See also tea tree (M alternifolia, p. I 12).

Cautions Take internally only under
professional supervision. Do not use during
pregnancy. Cajuput essential oil is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Self-help Use Chest coughs & bronchitis,
p. 310.

Melilotus officinalis

syn. M. arvensis (Fabaceae)

Melilot

Description Biennial herb growing to about 3 ft
(I m). Has 3-lobed leaves, spikes of yellow flowers,
and brown seedpods.

MITCHELLA REPENS

toothache to measles. Like peppermint (A/1. x piperita,
p. I 14), it helps to lower the temperature, has
antimucus properties, and may be taken for
dysentery and diarrhea. The juice has also been
used to treat earache. Bo he is often combined
with ju hua (Chrysanthemum x morifolium, p. 78)
to treat headaches and bloodshot or sore eyes.
Related Species The Japanese variety of bo he
(A/1. arvensis ) is widely cultivated as a source of
menthol. The closely related spearmint (A/1. spicata)
native to Europe and Asia, is used mainly as a
flavoring and culinary herb. See also peppermint
(A/1. x piperita, p. 114) and pennyroyal (A/1. pulegium,
following entry).

Mentha pulegium (Lamiaceae)

Pennyroyal

Description Powerfully aromatic perennial
growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has oval, toothed leaves
and whorls of lilac flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Pennyroyal is native
to Europe and western Asia, and has become
naturalized in the Americas. It thrives in damp
areas and is gathered when in flower in summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Pennyroyal’s volatile oil contains
pulegone (27-92%), isopulegone, menthol, and
other terpenoids. Pennyroyal also contains bitters
and tannins.

History & Folklore The Roman natural
historian Pliny (23-79 ce) wrote that pennyroyal
was considered a better medicinal herb than roses,
and that it purified bad water. His contemporary,
Dioscorides, stated that pennyroyal “provokes
menstruation and labour.” In 1597, John Gerard
wrote that “a garland of pennie royal made and
worne about the head is of great force against
the swimming of the head, and the pains and
giddiness thereof.” The name pulegium derives
from the Latin word for flea, referring to
pennyroyal’s traditional use as a flea-repellent.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Similar in many
respects to peppermint (A/1. x piperita, p. I 14),
pennyroyal is a good digestive tonic. It increases
the secretion of digestive juices, relieves flatulence
and colic, and occasionally is used as a treatment
for intestinal worms. It makes a good remedy for
headaches and for minor respiratory infections,
helping to check fever and reduce mucus.
Pennyroyal powerfully stimulates the uterine muscles
and encourages menstruation. An infusion of
pennyroyal can be used externally to treat itchiness
and formication (a sensation of ants crawling over
the body) and rheumatic conditions including gout.
Related Species See peppermint (A/I. x piperita,
p. 114) and bo he (A/1. haplocalyx, preceding entry).
American pennyroyal ( Hedeoma pulegoides), while

only distantly related, has constituents similar
to those of pennyroyal. American pennyroyal is
traditionally used as a remedy for colds, headaches,
and delayed menstrual periods.

Cautions Do not use the essential oil, which
is highly toxic. Do not take pennyroyal during
pregnancy, or if menstrual periods are heavy.
Self-help Uses Digestive headaches &
biliousness, p. 309; Nausea with headache, p. 306

Menyanthes trifoliata
(Menyanthaceae)

Bogbean

Description Perennial aquatic plant growing
to 9 in (23 cm). Has trefoil leaves and spikes of
pink and white flowers with fringed petals.

Habitat & Cultivation Bogbean is native
to Europe, Asia, and America. It is found in shallow
fresh water. The leaves are picked in summer.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Bogbean contains iridoid
glycosides, flavonol glycosides, coumarins, phenolic
acids, sterols, triterpenoids, tannin, and very small
amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. The iridoids are
strongly bitter and stimulate digestive secretions.

Bogbean leaves are gathered in summer, after the plant
has come into flower.

History & Folklore Long used as a folk remedy
for rheumatism and arthritis, bogbean has also been
taken to treat fluid retention, scabies, and fever. In
the past, because of the herb’s pronounced
bitterness, it was used as an adulterant of, or a
substitute for, hops ( Humulus lupulus, p. 104).
Medicinal Actions & Uses Bogbean is a
strongly bitter herb that encourages the appetite
and stimulates digestive secretions. It is taken to
improve underactive or weak digestion, particularly

if there is abdominal discomfort. This herb is also
used as an aid to weight gain. Bogbean is thought
to be an effective remedy for rheumatism, especially
when this condition is associated with weakness,
weight loss, and lack of vitality. Mostly, bogbean is
prescribed in combination with other herbs such
as celery seed ( Apium graveolens, p. 64) and white
willow ( Salixalba, p. 129).

Cautions Do not take if suffering from
diarrhea, dysentery, or colitis. Excessive doses
may cause vomiting.

Milletta reticulata (Fabaceae)

Ji Xue Teng

Description Climber growing to 16 ft (5 m)
with compound leaves and clusters of pea-type
flowers producing large beanpods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,)/ xue
teng is cultivated in the southeast of that country.
Parts Used Root, vine.

Constituents It contains flavonoids and
isoflavones. In common with other members
of the bean family, it also contains rotenone, a
naturally occurring broad-spectrum insecticide.
History & Folklore This plant was first
recorded in Chinese medical texts in about
720 ce. It is called ji xue teng, literally “chicken
blood vine,” because of the red sap that
exudes when the stem is cut.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese herbal
medicine (see pp. 40-43), pain is often thought to
be due to poor or obstructed blood flow. In this
tradition,)/ xue teng is classified as an herb that
invigorates the blood, and is mainly used to treat
menstrual problems.)/ xue teng is used to relieve
period pain or normalize an irregular or absent
cycle, especially where this may be due to anemia.
This herb is also prescribed for certain types of
arthritic pain, as well as for numbness of the hands
and feet.

Research Limited investigation indicates that
ji xue teng may be anti-inflammatory and may
lower blood pressure.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or
while breastfeeding.

Mitchella repens (Rubiaceae)

Squaw Vine,

Partridge Berry

Description Evergreen herb growing to
I ft (30 cm) and forming mats on the ground.

Has rounded shiny leaves, a flowering stem bearing
fragrant white flowers and small, bright red berries.

235

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

MOMORDICA CHARANTIA

236

Habitat & Cultivation

Squaw vine is native to the
eastern and central U.S. It grows in
dry sites in woodlands, and is
harvested in late summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, berries.
Constituents Squaw vine is
believed to contain tannins,
glycosides, and saponins.

History & Folklore
An infusion of squaw vine was
commonly taken by Native American women to
hasten childbirth. It was also occasionally used for
a variety of other complaints, including insomnia,
rheumatic pain, and fluid retention.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Squaw vine is
still extensively used to aid labor and childbirth,
and is considered to have atonic action on the
uterus and the ovaries. It is taken to normalize
menstruation and to relieve heavy periods and
period pain. This herb has also been recommended
for stimulating breast-milk production, but other
herbs with a similar action, such as fennel
(.Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212), are preferred. The
berries, crushed and mixed with tincture of myrrh
(Commiphora molmol, p. 85), are helpful for sore
nipples. An astringent herb, squaw vine has also
been prescribed for diarrhea and colitis.

Caution Do not take during the first 6 months
of pregnancy.

Momordica charantia
(Cucurbitaceae)

Bitter Melon,

purgative, and is prescribed for colic. A decoction
of the leaves is taken for liver problems and colitis,
and it may be applied to skin conditions. The seed
oil is used to help heal wounds.

Research Seeds are androgenic and
inhibit sperm production, and were tested
as a contraceptive in China in the 1980s.

In diabetic laboratory animals, the fruit juice
stimulated regeneration of the pancreatic cells,
which secrete insulin. A major body of evidence
now supports the traditional use of the fruit juice
to treat non-insulin-dependent diabetes.

Related Species The seeds of the Asian
M. cochinchinensis are applied as a poultice to
relieve abscesses, hemorrhoids, and scrofula.
Recent research indicates that a paste of the
seeds may help psoriasis and ringworm.

Cautions While bitter melon is relatively safe at
low dosage, do not use for more than 4 weeks. Do
not take if prone to low blood-sugar levels.

Monarda punctata (Lamiaceae)

Horsemint

Description Strongly aromatic perennial
growing to 3 ft (90 cm). Has downy lance-shaped
leaves, and double-lipped, red-spotted yellow
flowers growing in whorls from the leaf axils.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the eastern
and central U.S., horsemint is found in dry and
sandy areas. It is gathered when in flower in
summer and autumn.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Horsemint’s volatile oil has
thymol as the main constituent.

Kerala

Description Annual climber growing to about
6Vi ft (2 m). Has deeply lobed leaves, yellow
flowers, and orange-yellow fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Asia, bitter melon is common throughout tropical
regions of the world. It is harvested year round.
Parts Used Leaves, fruit, seeds, seed oil.
Constituents Bitter melon contains a fixed oil,
an insulin-like peptide, cucurbitacins, glycosides
(mormordin and charantin), and an alkaloid
(mormordicine). The peptide is known to lower
sugar levels in the blood and urine.

History & Folklore Bitter melon is
traditionally taken in Asia, Africa, and the
Caribbean to treat the symptoms of diabetes.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The unripe fruit
is mainly used to treat type 2 diabetes. The ripe
fruit is a stomach tonic, and induces menstruation.
In Turkey, it is used to treat ulcers. The fruit is
much used in the West Indies for worms, urinary
stones, and fever. The fruit juice is taken as a

Horsemint strongly encourages sweating and the onset
of menstruation.

History & Folklore Horsemint’s genus name,
Monarda, was bestowed in honor of Nicolas
Monardes, a Spanish physician, whose herbal
of 1569 detailed the medicinal uses of a number of
New World plants. Horsemint was used by the

Winnebagos and Dakotas as a stimulant and as a
treatment for cholera. Other Native Americans
used the herb for a wide variety of problems,
including nausea, backache, fluid retention, chills,
and headache.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Having a
strong volatile oil, horsemint is primarily used for
digestive and upper respiratory problems. It is
taken as an infusion to relieve nausea, indigestion,
flatulence, and colic. It is also employed to reduce
fevers and upper respiratory mucus. The herb
has an antiseptic action within the chest. Taken
internally or applied externally, horsemint reduces
fever by encouraging sweating. It also strongly
stimulates menstruation.

Related Species In 19th-century America,
Oswego tea (M. didyma ) was considered atonic
for young mothers, and was traditionally given
to brides. It is thought to be a mild menstrual
regulator and an appetite stimulant.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Monsonia ovata (Geraniaceae)

Monsonia

Description Small herbaceous plant with multi-
branched stems, very small oblong leaves and
white solitary or paired geranium-like flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to South
Africa and Namibia, monsonia is found growing
in arid conditions. It is gathered when in flower.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

History & Folklore In Zulu medicine,
monsonia is used to treat snake bite.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Monsonia is
used throughout southwestern Africa as a
treatment for diarrhea, acute and chronic
dysentery, and ulcerative colitis. The plant’s
astringent properties act to tighten and protect
the inner linings of the intestinal tract. Given
monsonia’s long traditional use for intestinal
disorders and infections, it is possible—but as
yet unsubstantiated by research—that the plant
has a direct antimicrobial effect.

Montia perfoliata (Portulacaceae)

Miner’s Lettuce

Description Annual growing to 4 in (10 cm)
with pointed oval leaves (one pair enveloping
the stem), and white 5-petaled flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Miners lettuce
is native to western North America, and has
become naturalized in temperate regions around
the world, especially in Australia. The plant thrives
in acid sandy soils. It is generally gathered from

M 0 RU S ALBA

the wild before and during the flowering period.

It has also been cultivated as a vegetable.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Miner’s lettuce is rich in vitamin C.
History & Folklore Miner’s lettuce was a
readily available salad vegetable on the West Coast
of America. It most probably acquired its name
during the California gold rush of 1849. Itinerant
miners may have later taken the plant with them
to Australia, where it is now common.

Medicinal Actions & Uses

Apart from its value as a vegetable,
miner’s lettuce, like its relative purslane
(Portulaca oleracea, p. 255), may also be
taken as an invigorating spring tonic and
an effective diuretic.

Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)

Noni,

Indian Mulberry

Description Shrub or small tree, growing to
26 ft (8 m), with 4-angled stems, and elliptical to oval
leaves to 14 in (35 cm) long. Large creamy-white
flowers produce a fruit resembling a breadfruit,
about 434 in (12 cm) long, green turning yellow to
white, with a pungent, very unpleasant odor.
Habitat & Cultivation Originally native only
to Southeast Asia, noni has spread to India in the
west and across the Pacific to eastern Polynesia and
Hawaii. It prefers volcanic soils in coastal areas
and lowland forests up to about 1,300 ft (400 m)
above sea level, and until recently was infrequently
cultivated. The fruit is gathered when ripe; other
parts of the tree are picked as required.

Parts Used Fruit and juice, leaves, bark.
Constituents Noni fruit contains polysaccharides,
coumarins, iridoids, flavonoids and alkaloids.

No active compounds unique to noni have
been identified.

History & Folklore Different parts of the
plant have been used in Polynesia for at least 2,000
years, chiefly to counter infection and to treat

chronic disease. For example, noni leaves are used
to treat boils and stomach ulcers and, chewed,
are applied as a poultice to relieve inflammation.

In Hawaii, traditional healers have long used noni in
order to promote recovery from bouts of
serious illness.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Since the late
1990s, word of noni’s reputed medicinal benefits
has spread and noni is being presented as a
medicinal food with an astonishing variety of
potential uses. These include treating obesity,
diabetes, cancer, pain, lowered immunity, high blood
pressure, heart disease, and depression. With lists
like this, many people are justifiably skeptical about
noni’s value as a medicinal food. Nonetheless, noni
fruit and juice is highly unlikely to do harm and may
well prove useful in treating chronic illness, including
pain, inflammatory disorders, heart and circulatory
problems, and cancer. Traditionally, juice from
the fruit is used as a mouthwash and gargle for
infections in the mouth and throat. Noni juice is
probably best drunk on an empty stomach.
Research The limited research into noni suggests
that it may support immune function and be useful
in treating chronic inflammation. A 2012 review
of noni research concluded that the fruit “may
have a small degree of anticancer activity.” One
theory advanced is that noni contains appreciable
levels of proxeronine, which the body needs to
produce xeronine. This alkaloid appears to enable
cells throughout the body to counter inflammation,
promote healing, and support cellular regulation. In
times of stress or infection, the body’s need for
xeronine increases, and many people are thought
to lack sufficient proxeronine to maintain adequate
xeronine levels.

Morinda officinalis (Rubiaceae)

Morinda,

Baji Tian (Chinese)

Description Deciduous plant with white
flowers and a root that yields a yellow dye.

Habitat & Cultivation Morinda is native
to China. It is cultivated in Guangdong, Guangxi,
and Fujian provinces. The root is unearthed in
early spring.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Morinda contains anthraquinones,
terpenoids, and polysaccharides.

History & Folklore The earliest written record
of morinda’s use is in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic
(Shen’nong Bencaojing) of the I st century ce.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Pungent and
sweet-tasting, morinda root is an important tonic
herb within traditional Chinese medicine. It has
hormonal and antidepressant properties. As a
sexual tonic, it is commonly used to treat impotence

and premature ejaculation in men, and is
taken by both sexes to aid fertility. Morinda is
employed in various other conditions, notably
in the treatment of menstrual disorders.
Researchers are investigating the root for its
potential to prevent bone loss and help in
treating osteoporosis.

Morus alba (Moraceae)

White Mulberry,

Sang Ye (Chinese)

Description Deciduous tree growing to about
49 ft (15 m). Has toothed leaves, flowers in catkins,
and white berries.

Habitat & Cultivation White mulberry
is native to China. It is grown worldwide as a
garden ornamental. The leaves are gathered in
late autumn, the twigs in early summer, and the
berries when ripe in summer. The root is dug up
in winter.

Parts Used Leaves, twigs, fruit, root bark.
Constituents The leaves contain flavonoids,
anthocyanins, and artocapin. The flavonoids are
antioxidant. The fruit contains the vitamins A, B,,

B 2 , and C. ^

History & Folklore White mulberry has
been cultivated for over 5,000 years for its leaves
(sang ye), the preferred food of the silkworm. The
silkworm’s feces are used in Chinese medicine to
treat vomiting.

Medicinal Actions & Uses White mulberry
leaves are expectorant, encouraging the loosening
and coughing up of phlegm, and are prescribed in
China as a treatment for coughs. The leaves are
also taken to treat fever, sore and inflamed eyes,
sore throats, headaches, dizziness and vertigo.

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M URRAY A KOENIG I I

The fruit juice is cleansing and tonic, and has often
been used as a gargle and mouthwash. The root
bark may be used for toothache, and it is
considered laxative. An extract of the leaves has
been given by injection for elephantiasis. The twigs
are used to combat excess fluid retention and
joint pain. The fruit is taken to prevent premature
graying of the hair, and to treat dizziness, ringing in
the ears, blurred vision, and insomnia.

Related Species The black mulberry (M nigra),
native to Iran, is cultivated for its sweet, deep
red fruit.

Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae)

Curry Tree

Description Aromatic deciduous shrub or tree
growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has strongly scented leaves,
clusters of small, fragrant white flowers, and pink
to black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Curry tree
is native to subtropical forests in much of
southern Asia. It is widely cultivated in India
for its leaves.

Parts Used Leaves, berries.

Constituents Curry tree contains over
20 alkaloids, a glycoside (koenigin), volatile oil,
and tannins.

History & Folklore Curry tree, also known as
curry patta, is a common flavoring in Indian food.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Curry tree leaves
increase digestive secretions and relieve nausea,
indigestion, and vomiting. They are also used to
treat diarrhea and dysentery. Curry tree aids
healing, for example in gastric ulcers, and the
leaves are applied as a poultice on wounds and
burns. It helps to stabilize blood-sugar levels and is
useful for type 2 diabetes.

Related Species The very bitter leaves
of cosmetic bark (M paniculata) are taken
to treat stomach ache, dysentery, toothache,
and bruises.

Musa spp. (Musaceae)

Banana,

Plantain

Description Evergreen, palm-like perennials
growing to 30 ft (9 m). Have large, shiny green
leaves, hanging flowering stems, and bunches of
elongated green fruit that turn yellow on ripening.

Habitat & Cultivation Musa species
are native to India and Southeast Asia, and are
extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical
238 regions. The fruit is generally picked when

Bananas are picked before they fully ripen. They are
a useful remedy for diarrhea.

immature and then allowed to ripen. The leaves
are gathered as required.

Parts Used Fruit, leaves, root.

Constituents The fruit contains flavonoids and
is rich in vitamins B, C, and E, potassium, serotonin,
and noradrenaline.

History & Folklore The delicious and highly
nutritious banana fruit is the yield of careful
horticulture, which had its origins with wild
plants in prehistoric times.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Ripe banana
fruit is gently laxative, while the unripe fruit is
astringent and used to treat diarrhea. The fruit
stimulates hemoglobin production and can
therefore prove useful in preventing or treating
anemia. Banana makes a simple addition to diets
aimed at lowering high blood pressure. Given the
fruit’s serotonin content, some practitioners
recommend taking three bananas a day to help
treat migraines and depression. A syrup made
from plantain is taken for coughs and chest
conditions such as bronchitis.

Myrica cerifera (Myricaceae)

Bay berry

Description Evergreen shrub or small tree
growing to 33 ft (10 m). Has narrow leaves, small
yellow flowers in catkins, and waxy gray berries.
Habitat & Cultivation Bayberry is found in
coastal regions of the eastern and southern U.S.,
as far west as Texas. The root bark is collected in
autumn or spring.

Part Used Root bark.

Constituents Bayberry contains triterpenes
(including taraxerol, taraxerone, and myricadiol),
flavonoids, tannins, phenols, resins, and gums.
Myricadiol has a mild effect on potassium and
sodium levels.

History & Folklore Settlers in North America
extolled the medicinal benefits of bayberry. A 1737
account stated that the plants “expel wind and ease
all manner of pains proceeding from cold, therefore
are good in colic, palsies, convulsions, epilepsies, and
many other disorders.” The root bark was listed in
the US. National Formulary from 1916 to 1936.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Bayberry is used
to increase circulation, stimulate perspiration, and
keep bacterial infections in check. Colds, flu,
coughs, and sore throats benefit from treatment
with this herb. It helps to strengthen resistance to
infection and to tighten and dry mucous
membranes. An infusion is helpful for spongy
gums, and a gargle is used for sore throats.
Bayberry’s astringency is beneficial for irritable
bowel syndrome and mucous colitis. An infusion
can help treat excess vaginal discharge. A paste of
the powdered root bark may be used externally on
ulcers and sores.

Caution Do not take in pregnancy.

Myrica gale (Myricaceae)

Sweet Gale,

Bog Myrtle

Description Low-growing, fragrant shrub,
growing to 614 ft (2 m), with lance-shaped leaves.
Male plants produce resinous catkins in spring.
Habitat & Cultivation Sweet gale thrives
in wet and damp heaths and moorlands across
northerly regions of the northern hemisphere. The
leaves are collected in summer, the catkins in spring.
Parts Used Leaves, branches, catkins.
Constituents Sweet gale contains an essential
oil (chiefly alpha-pinene and delta-cadinene),
flavonoids, and resin.

History & Folklore In Scotland, where the
plant grows freely, Highlanders slept on fleaproof
beds of sweet gale and placed it among linen to
repel moths. Enterprising anglers are also reported
to have worn sprigs of sweet gale to keep away
midges. In Scotland and Sweden, a strong decoction
was used to kill insects and intestinal worms.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Sweet gale is
mostly used as an insect repellent and insecticide and
offers a safe and ecologically sound way to protect
against insect bites. Over-the-counter preparations
are available, though a decoction of the plant bathed
on exposed areas will also prove effective.
Research Since the 1990s, the essential oil of
sweet gale has become recognized as an effective
insect repellent (especially of midges), and is now
available in blended formulations. In one trial in
Scotland, volunteers exposed their arms to midges,
with one arm covered in a gel containing essential
oil of sweet gale. After 10 minutes, the protected
arms averaged 1.6 bites, the unprotected arms 9.4.

N E P ETA CAT A R I A

Cautions Do not take the essential oil internally.
Do not use sweet gale internally in pregnancy or
while breastfeeding. The essential oil is thought
to be toxic.

Myroxylon pereirae

syn. At balsamum var. pereirae

(Fabaceae)

Peruvian Balsam

Description Evergreen tree growing to I 15 ft
(35 m). Has grey bark, compound leaves dotted
with oil glands, white pea-like flowers, and yellow
seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Central
America, Peruvian balsam grows wild in tropical
forests. It is cultivated in Central and South America
and India. Oleoresin (balsam) is taken from cuts
in the bark.

Part Used Oleoresin.

Constituents The oleoresin contains 50-65%
volatile oil (mainly benzyl benzoate and benzyl
cinnamate) and resins.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Peruvian balsam is
strongly antiseptic and stimulates repair of damaged
tissue. It is most commonly taken internally as an
expectorant and antimucus remedy to treat
bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchial asthma. It may
also be taken to treat sore throats and diarrhea,
and applied topically to skin disorders.

Related Species The balsam from similar species
was used by the Inca to relieve fevers and colds.
Caution Peruvian balsam may cause allergic
skin reactions.

A1 yrtus communis (Myrtaceae)

Myrtle

Description Evergreen shrub growing to a
height of 10 ft (3 m). Has dark green leaves, white
flowers, and purple-black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Myrtle is native to
the Mediterranean region and it is cultivated for
its essential oil. The leaves are gathered in spring.
Parts Used Leaves, essential oil.

Constituents Myrtle contains tannins,
flavonoids, and a volatile oil (mainly alpha-pinene,
cineole, and myrtenol).

History & Folklore In ancient Greece, myrtle
was dedicated to Aphrodite, who was the goddess
of love, and brides bedecked themselves with myrtle
leaves. A liqueur is made from the berries.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Myrtle leaves
are astringent, tonic, and antiseptic. An infusion of
the leaves can be used externally to clean and heal
wounds and ulcers, or internally to remedy disorders

of the digestive and urinary systems. The essential oil
is strongly antiseptic and anti-mucus, and in Spain is
used to treat bronchial and lung infections.
Caution Do not take the essential oil internally
except with professional advice.

Nasturtium officinale (Cruciferae)

Watercress

Description Creeping perennial growing to
2 ft (60 cm), with compound leaves, spikes of white
4-petaled flowers, and small sickle-shaped pods.
Habitat & Cultivation Found in temperate
regions throughout the world, watercress thrives
alongside or in fresh running water. While
commonly found in the wild, it is also widely
cultivated as a salad herb. Watercress is best
gathered before it flowers in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Watercress contains
isothiocyanates and is rich in vitamins A, B,, B 2 , C,
and E, and minerals (especially iodine, iron, and
phosphorus). Allyl isothiocyanate has broad-spectrum
antibiotic activity. Research in the 1960s suggested
that watercress might have antitumor activity.
History & Folklore Watercress has long been
valued as a food and medicinal plant. Xenophon, a
Greek general in the 5th century bce, attributed
other virtues to it, recommending the Persians to
feed it to their children to build up their strength.

In European folk medicine, watercress has primarily
been considered a “blood-cleanser,” and was used
in former times as a spring tonic.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Watercress
provides excellent, easily digested nutrition. Its high
mineral and vitamin C content makes it particularly
suited for chronic ill health and convalescence. It
is thought to stimulate appetite, ease indigestion,
and counter mucus. A detoxifying herb and food,
watercress cleanses the liver, blood, kidneys,
and lungs.

Nepeta cataria (Lamiaceae)

Catnip

Description Downy, aromatic perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has heart-shaped, gray-green leaves
and whorls of white flowers with purple spots.

Habitat & Cultivation Catnip is native to
Europe and naturalized in North America. It grows
in dry wayside places and in mountainous regions up
to altitudes of 5,000 ft (1,500 m). Catnip is gathered
when in flower in summer and autumn.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

fever by strongly
encouraging sweating.

Constituents Catnip contains iridoids, tannins,
and volatile oil (mainly comprising alpha- and
beta-nepetalactone, citronellol, and geraniol).
History & Folklore Pechey’s Compleat Herbal
(1694) describes catnip: "Tis hot and dry. Tis
chiefly used for obstructions of the womb, for
barrenness, and to hasten delivery, and to help

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N I C 0 T I A N A T A B A C U M

expectoration. Tis used outwardly in baths for
the womb, and the itch.” Catnip has an excitatory
effect on cats.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Catnip settles the
stomach, is sedative and, as it stimulates sweating,
reduces fever. The herb’s pleasant taste and gentle
action make it suitable for colds, flu, and fever in
children, especially when mixed with elderflower
(.Sambucus nigra, p. 132) and sweetened with honey.
Catnip is markedly antiflatulent, helping to settle
indigestion and colic. The herb is also useful in
treating headaches related to digestive problems.

A tincture is beneficial as a friction rub for
rheumatism and arthritis.

Self-help Use Digestive infections, p. 305.

Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae)

Tobacco

Description Annual or biennial plant growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has an erect stem, large oval leaves,
and pink or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Tobacco is native
to tropical America. It is now grown worldwide,
chiefly for smoking tobacco but also as the source
of an insecticide. Leaves for smoking are gathered,
dried, and cured.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Tobacco contains alkaloids (notably
nicotine) and a volatile oil. Nicotine is stimulant
and addictive.

History & Folklore Even in 17th-century
England, opinions on smoking were sharply divided.
King James I unsuccessfully tried to ban ‘‘a custome
loathsome to the eye, hatefull to the nose, harmfull
to the braine [and] dangerous to the lungs.” In
Central America, tobacco was prescribed by the
Maya as a treatment for asthma, convulsions, and
skin disease. Tobacco has been used as part of
rituals in many Native American cultures.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Tobacco is no
longer used medicinally. The dried leaves make a
good insecticide, but external application should
be avoided as nicotine is readily absorbed through
the skin.

Caution Tobacco should not be taken in
any form.

Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae)

Black Cumin

240

Description Annual herb growing to I ft
(30 cm). Has an upright branching stem, fine
deeply cut leaves, gray-blue flowers, and
toothed seedpods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
Asia, black cumin is grown throughout much

of Asia and the Mediterranean region for its seeds
and as a garden plant. The seeds are gathered once
they are ripe.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents The seeds contain 40% fixed
oil, a saponin (melantin), alkaloids, and up to
1.4% volatile oil.

History & Folklore Black cumin was found in
the tomb of Tutankhamun, but its role in ancient
Egypt, medicinal or otherwise, is unknown.
Dioscorides, a Greek physician of the I st century
ce, recorded that black cumin seeds were taken
to treat headaches, nasal congestion, toothache,
and intestinal worms, and, in large quantities, as a
diuretic, to promote menstrual periods, and to
increase breast-milk production.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Like many
culinary herbs, black cumin seeds are beneficial for
the digestive system, soothing stomach pain and
spasms and easing gas, bloating, and colic. The
seeds are also antiseptic and are used to treat
intestinal worms, especially in children. Cumin
seeds are much used in India to increase the
production of breast milk.

Research Recent research indicates that
black cumin seed may prove useful in metabolic
syndrome, a condition that typically involves raised
cholesterol levels, raised blood pressure, and type
2 diabetes. The seeds are also antiviral and show
promise in the treatment of chronic viral infections,
such as hepatitis C.

Caution Love-in-a-mist (N. damascena) should
not be used as a substitute for black cumin seeds.

Notopterygium incisium
(Apiaceae)

Notopterygium Root,

Qiang Huo (Chinese)

Description Carrot-family member with an
upright ridged stem, deeply cut leaves, and flowers
in dense clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Notopterygium root
is native to central and western China. The root is
unearthed in spring or autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Notopterygium root contains
furanocoumarins, sterols, and a volatile oil.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Notopterygium
root is taken mainly for colds and chills, fevers,
headache, general aches and pains, and malaise.
The herb is warming and pungent, counters cold
and damp conditions, and promotes sweating,
especially in fevers. It is also prescribed for neck
and back pain.

Caution At high dosage notopterygium root
may cause vomiting.

Nymphaea alba (Nymphaceae)

White Water Lily

Description Perennial aquatic plant with deep
roots, plate-shaped leaves on long cylindrical stems,
and large-petaled white flowers occasionally tinged
with pink.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
white water lily is found in ponds and in still water in
lakes, rivers, and canals. The rhizome is gathered
in autumn.

Parts Used Rhizome, flowers.

Constituents The rhizome contains alkaloids
(nymphaeine and nupharine), resin, glycosides,
and tannins.

History & Folklore According to the
17th-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, ‘‘The
leaves do cool all inflammations ... the syrup
helpeth much to procure rest, and to settle the
brains of frantic persons.”

White water lily flowers have a sedative effect, calming
nervous tension and anxiety.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The rhizome
of the white water lily is astringent and antiseptic.
A decoction treats dysentery, or diarrhea due
to irritable bowel syndrome. White water lily has
also been employed to treat chronic bronchitis
and kidney pain, and taken as a gargle for sore
throats. The rhizome may be used to make a
douche for vaginal soreness and discharge, or to
make a poultice for boils and abscesses. White
water lily flowers have long been reputed to
reduce sexual drive. Their generally calming and
sedative effect on the nervous system makes
them useful in the treatment of insomnia, anxiety,
and similar disorders of this nature.

Research Studies suggest that white water lily
may, as has been claimed, act as an anaphrodisiac,
diminishing sexual drive. The plant has been found
to lower blood pressure in animals.

Related Species The white pond lily (N. odorata )
is a close American relative used for much the same
purposes. The rhizome of the white lotus (N. lotus),

0 LEA EUROPAEA

native to tropical Africa and Asia, has been used
medicinally since the earliest times, and is taken
for indigestion, dysentery, and other
gastrointestinal problems.

Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae)

Sweet Basil,

Basil

Description Strongly aromatic annual growing
to 20 in (50 cm). Has shiny oval leaves, a square
stem, and small white flowers in whorls.

Habitat & Cultivation Sweet basil, also
known as basil, is probably native to India. Over
150 varieties are now grown around the world for
their distinctive flavor and essential oil. The leaves
and flowering tops are gathered as the plant comes
into flower.

Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops, essential oil.
Constituents Sweet basil contains a volatile oil
(about I %), which consists principally of linalool
and methylchavicol, along with small quantities
of methyl cinnamate, cineole, and other terpenes.
History & Folklore In his I st-century ce
Materia Medica, the Greek physician Dioscorides
described the African belief that eating sweet
basil stopped the pain caused by a scorpion’s sting.
The herb was used in Roman times to relieve
flatulence, to counteract poisoning, as a diuretic,
and to stimulate breast-milk production. Basil also
has a history of use in Ayurvedic medicine.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Sweet basil acts
principally on the digestive and nervous systems,
easing flatulence, stomach cramps, colic, and
indigestion. It can be used to prevent or relieve
nausea and vomiting, and
helps to kill intestinal Jk
worms. Sweet basil

Sweet basil is a mildly
sedative herb with
antibacterial properties.

has a mildly sedative action, proving useful in
treating nervous irritability, depression, anxiety,
and difficulty in sleeping. It may also be taken for
epilepsy, migraine, and whooping cough. The herb
has been traditionally taken to increase breast-milk
production. Applied externally, sweet basil leaves
act as an insect repellent. The juice from the leaves
brings relief to insect bites and stings. Sweet basil
has an established antibacterial action.

Related Species See also holy basil (Ocimum
tenuiflorum, p. 116). Bush basil (0. basilicum var.
minimum ) has a much milder action than sweet basil,
and is used to relieve cramping pain and flatulence.
Caution Sweet basil essential oil should not be
taken internally.

Self-help Use Minor bites, stings & swellings,

p. 303.

Oenothera biennis (Onagraceae)

Evening Primrose

Description Biennial herb growing to 8 in
(20 cm). Has red blotches on stem, crinkled lance¬
shaped leaves, 4-petaled yellow flowers, and
elongated seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, evening primrose is now commonly
found in many temperate zones around the world.
It thrives in open areas, especially in dunes and
sandy soil. Evening primrose is grown commercially
for its seed oil.

Parts Used Leaves, stem bark, flowers, seed oil.
Constituents Evening primrose oil is rich in
essential fatty acids—linoleic (about 70%) and
gammalinolenic acid (about 9%) in particular. Its
action mostly depends on the gammalinolenic acid
(GLA), which is a precursor of prostaglandin E r
The oil is often combined with vitamin E to
prevent oxidation.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The flowers,
leaves, and stem bark of evening primrose have
astringent and sedative properties. All
three parts have been employed in
the treatment of whooping cough.

Evening primrose has also been
taken for digestive problems and
asthma, and used as a poultice to
ease the discomfort of rheumatic
disorders. The oil, applied externally, is
beneficial in the treatment of
eczema, certain other itchy skin
conditions, and breast tenderness.

Taken internally, the oil has an effect
in lowering blood pressure, and in
preventing the clumping of platelets.

The oil is now commonly taken for
premenstrual problems, including
tension and abdominal bloating, and

may prove helpful in conditions as diverse as dry
eyes and multiple sclerosis.

Caution Do not take evening primrose oil if
suffering from epilepsy.

Olea europaea (Oleaceae)

Olive

Description Evergreen tree growing to 33 ft
(10 m). Has a deeply grooved gray trunk, small
leathery leaves, clusters of small greenish-white
flowers, and a green fruit ripening to black.

Olive harvesting is carried out in many groves much
as it was centuries ago.

Habitat & Cultivation Olive trees grow wild
in the Mediterranean region and are cultivated in
Mediterranean countries and in regions with a
similar climate in the Americas. The leaves may
be gathered throughout the year, the fruit in late
summer. The leaves of wild trees are believed to
contain a higher concentration of active principles.
Parts Used Leaves, oil.

Constituents Olive leaves contain oleoropine,
olesterol, and leine. Olive oil contains about 75%
oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid.

History & Folklore The olive was probably first
cultivated in Crete around 3500 bce. The tree has
many symbolic associations: the olive branch is an
emblem of peace, and the leaves crowned victors in
the ancient Olympic Games. The leaves have been
used since those times to clean wounds. The oil has
been used for ritual anointing in some religions.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Olive leaves lower
blood pressure and help to improve the function of
the circulatory system. They are also mildly diuretic
and may be used to treat conditions such as cystitis.
Possessing some ability to lower blood-sugar levels,
the leaves have been taken for diabetes. The oil is
nourishing and improves the balance of fats within
the blood. It is traditionally taken with lemon juice
in teaspoonful doses to treat gallstones. The oil has
a generally protective action on the digestive tract
and is useful for dry skin.

Evening

primrose

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

ONONIS S P I N 0 S A

Research Clinical trials have shown that olive
leaves lower blood pressure.

Self-help Uses Cradle cap, p. 3 18; Stretch
marks, p. 3 17.

Ononis spinosa (Fabaceae)

Spiny Restharrow

Description Spiny perennial with 3 small leaflets
per leaf, bright pink, pea-1 ike flowers, and small
seed pods.

Habitat & Cultivation A relatively common
European plant, spiny restharrow thrives in dry
grassland and along roadsides.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Spiny restharrow root contains
phenols, lectins, triterpenoids, and a volatile oil
(comprising mainly trans-anethole). The volatile
oil in the root is diuretic; the non-volatile oil
content is antidiuretic. A decoction of the root
has an antidiuretic effect, as the volatile oil is lost in
the steam. If a diuretic is desired, the root is made
into an infusion.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The root is used as
a diuretic and to prevent kidney and bladder stones.
It is of value in a range of urinary system problems,
including stones, gout, and cystitis. For excess fluid
retention, spiny restharrow is best taken as a short¬
term treatment, in the form of an infusion.

242

Operculina turpethum
(Convolvulaceae)

Turpeth

Description Twining climber with white tuberous
roots, hairy, oval leaves, white funnel-shaped
flowers, and round fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical India,
turpeth is now found in tropical regions around the
world. The root is unearthed throughout the year

Part Used Root.

Constituents Turpeth root contains turpethin
resin (approximately 4%) and a volatile oil.
History & Folklore Turpeth has been used
for several thousand years as a purgative in
Ayurvedic medicine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Turpeth root is
chiefly used in small doses to clear the bowels. It
is sometimes known as “Indian jalap,” and is used
in much the same way as this plant (Ipomoea purgo,
p. 223), though its action is slower and less drastic.
In Ayurvedic medicine, turpeth is prescribed
with picrorrhiza (Picrorrhiza kurroo, p. 248) to
treat jaundice.

Cautions Take only under professional supervision.
Do not take during pregnancy.

Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)

Prickly Pear

Description Perennial cactus growing to 10 ft
(3 m). Has large spatula-shaped stems covered
in clusters of spines, brilliant yellow flowers, and
roundish purple fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Prickly pear is native
to Mexico and naturalized in semitropical regions
around the world. The fruit is harvested when ripe,
the stems when required.

Parts Used Flowers, fruit, stems.
Constituents The fruit contains mucilage, sugars,
vitamin C, and other fruit acids.

History & Folklore Prickly
pear fruit is used to make
conserves and an alcoholic
drink in Mexico. The split
stems have been bound
around injured limbs as a
first-aid measure.

Medicinal Actions Pric|<|y pear fruit
& Uses Prickly pear flowers
are astringent and reduce bleeding, and are used
for problems of the gastrointestinal tract—
particularly diarrhea, colitis, and irritable bowel
syndrome. The flowers are also taken to treat an
enlarged prostate gland. The fruit is nutritious.

Origanum majorana
syn. Majorana hortensis
(Lamiaceae)

Sweet Marjoram

Description Woody perennial herb growing
to 20 in (50 cm). Has aromatic oval leaves and
pinkish-white flowers emerging from the
upper leaf axils.

Habitat & Cultivation Sweet marjoram is
native to countries borderingthe Mediterranean.
It is much cultivated as a culinary herb, and for its
essential oil.

Parts Used Aerial parts, essential oil.
Constituents Sweet marjoram
contains about 3% volatile oil
(comprising sabinene hydrate,
sabinene, linalool, carvacrol, and
other terpenes), flavonoids, caffeic
and rosmarinic acid, and triterpenoids.
History & Folklore In 1597, the
herbalist John Gerard made this assessment:
“Sweet marjoram is a remedy against cold diseases
of the braine and head, being taken anyway
to your best liking; put up into the nostrils it
provokes sneesing, and draweth forth much
baggage flegme; it easeth the toothache being
chewed in the mouth.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Mainly used
as a culinary herb, sweet marjoram is also
medicinally valuable due to its stimulant and
antispasmodic properties. Fike oregano
(0. vulgare, following entry), it treats flatulence,
colic, and respiratory problems, but it appears
to have a stronger effect on the nervous system
than its wild cousin. Sweet marjoram is a good
general tonic, helping to relieve anxiety,headaches,
and insomnia. The herb is also thought to lower
sexual drive.

Cautions Do not take as a medicine during
pregnancy. Do not take sweet marjoram essential
oil internally.

Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae)

Oregano,

Wild Marjoram

Description Upright perennial herb
growing to about 32 in (80 cm). Has square
red stems, elliptical leaves, and clusters of deep
pink flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Oregano is native
to Europe and naturalized in the Middle East.
The plant thrives in chalky soils close to the sea.
It is gathered when in flower in summer.

P A N AX QUINQUEFOLIUM

Parts Used Aerial parts, essential oil.
Constituents Oregano contains a volatile oil
(comprising carvacrol, thymol, beta-bisabolene,
caryophyllene, linalool, and borneol), tannins, resin,
sterols, and flavonoids. Both carvacrol and thymol
are antibacterial and antifungal.

History & Folklore Esteemed by the ancient
Greeks, oregano was considered a cure-all in
medieval times. It was one of the medicinal
plants cultivated by early New England settlers.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Oregano and
its oil are strongly antiseptic with potent activity
against many bacteria and fungi, notably E. coli
and Candida strains. It can aid many acute and
chronic infections affecting the gastrointestinal
and respiratory tracts, especially gastroenteritis,
dysentery, bronchitis, coughs, and tonsillitis.

Both herb and oil inhibit the gut flora (bacteria
naturally occurring within the gut) and have an
important role to play in gut dysbiosis, a condition
where the presence of harmful gut bacteria leads
to symptoms such as gas, bloating, and abdominal
discomfort. The diluted oil can be applied to
toothache or painful joints.

Cautions Do not take as a medicine during
pregnancy. External use may cause irritation of
the skin. Do not take essential oil internally.

Orthosiphon aristata (Lamiaceae)

Java Tea

Description Shrub growing to about 3 ft (I m).
Has pointed leaves and lilac-colored flowers with
very long stamens.

Habitat & Cultivation Java tea is native to
Southeast Asia and Australia. Now cultivated as a
medicinal plant, it is picked as required throughout
the year.

Part Used Leaves.

Constituents Java tea contains flavones
(including sinensetin), a glycoside (orthosiphonin),
a volatile oil, and large amounts of potassium.
History & Folklore The plant’s Dutch
Indonesian name, koemis koetjing (cat’s whiskers),
probably derives from its long whiskery stamens.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Java tea is
listed in the French, Indonesian, Dutch, and Swiss
pharmacopoeias (official documents containing a list
of drugs and their medicinal uses, preparations, and
dosages). It is thought to increase the kidneys’ ability
to eliminate nitrogen-containing compounds. The
herb is much used as a diuretic and as a
treatment for kidney infections, stones, and poor
renal function resulting from chronic nephritis. It
is also used to treat cystitis and urethritis.
Research Java tea’s diuretic activity has been
confirmed in scientific experiments. Extracts
significantly increase potassium levels in the urine.

Paeonia officinalis (Paeoniaceae)

Peony

Description Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm).
Has a tuberous root, upright stems, oval to lance¬
shaped leaflets, and attractive large red, red-purple
or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation A native of southern
Europe, peony grows in mountain woodlands
and is widely cultivated. The root is unearthed
in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Peony is thought to contain
alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids and
triterpenoids, and a volatile oil.

History & Folklore Since the time of
Hippocrates (470-377 bce), peony has been
used to treat epilepsy. I bn el Beitar, a medieval
Arab physician, recommended a necklace of peony
seeds to ward off epilepsy in children. Mrs. Grieve,
the author of A Modem Herbal (1931), recounted
how “in ancient times, peony was thought to be
of divine origin, an emanation from the moon, and
to shine during the night protecting the shepherds
and their flocks.”

Peony is named after Paean, the physician of the Greek gods.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though little used
in contemporary European herbal medicine, Peony
is greatly valued within Unani herbal medicine
from the Middle East. It has anti-inflammatory,
antispasmodic, and sedative activity, and is
prescribed for conditions as varied as nervous
debility, epilepsy, and high blood pressure, and as a
heart tonic. The root has also been taken to treat
whooping cough, and suppositories are made of
the root to relive anal and intestinal spasms.
Related Species Chinese peony ( Paeonia
lactiflora, p. 117) is much used in Chinese
herbal medicine.

O Cautions Take peony only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Panax notoginseng (Araliaceae)

Notoginseng,

San Qi (Chinese)

Description Deciduous perennial with an erect
stem growing to 3 ft (I m), compound leaves, small
greenish flowers, and small, berrylike fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,
notoginseng is now rare in the wild. It is cultivated
commercially in southern and central China. The
root is unearthed before flowering or after
the fruit has ripened.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Notoginseng contains steroidal
saponins, polysaccharides, and a flavonoid.
History & Folklore Despite its importance as
atonic, notoginseng was only recorded in Chinese
herbal medicine in 1578, in the Compendium of
Materia Medina by Li Shizen. He described the
root as being “more valuable than gold.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Like ginseng
(P. ginseng, p. I 18), notoginseng is a tonic that
supports the function of the adrenal glands,
in particular the production of corticosteroids
and male sex hormones. Notoginseng also helps to
improve blood flowthrough the coronary arteries,
thus finding use as a treatment for arteriosclerosis,
high blood pressure, and angina. Notoginseng
treats internal bleeding of almost any kind. The
herb may also be applied externally as a poultice
to help speed the healing of wounds and bruises.
Research Clinical studies have confirmed
notoginseng’s longstanding reputation as a means
to arrest bleeding. A Chinese trial indicated that
the herb hastens blood clotting. Another clinical
trial and extensive scientific studies, again in
China, associated the herb with positive
improvements in coronary circulation, in lessening
the symptoms of angina, and in the reduction of
blood pressure levels. In common with other
ginseng-type herbs, notoginseng has been shown
to enhance physical performance.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Panax quinquefolium (Araliaceae)

American Ginseng

Description Deciduous perennial growing to
about I ft (30 cm). Has a smooth stem, leaves
with oblong to oval leaflets, small greenish
flowers, and kidney-shaped scarlet-red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation American ginseng
is native to North America and the Himalayas.

A woodland plant, it is rarely seen in the wild due
to overharvesting. It is cultivated in Wisconsin,
China, and France. The root is gathered in autumn.
Part Used Root.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

PAPAVER R H 0 EA S

Constituents American ginseng contains
steroidal saponins, including panaquilon.

History & Folklore Native American peoples
may have considered this herb a means to increase
female fertility. From the mid-18th century, the
collection of the herb for export to China became
a virtual goldrush, with so many Native Americans
out harvesting American ginseng that settlers
reported finding villages almost deserted. The
Ojibwa people always planted a seed to replace
the herb, but this was not universal practice.
American ginseng became rare toward the end
of the 19th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The action of
American ginseng is presumed to be similar to,
but milder than, that of its Chinese cousin, ginseng
(P. ginseng, p. I 18). American ginseng increases the
ability to tolerate stress of all kinds. In traditional
Chinese medicine, American ginseng is employed
as a yin tonic, treating weakness, fever, wheezing,
and coughs.

Related Species See ginseng, nototginseng
(P. notoginseng, preceding entry), and Siberian
ginseng ( Eleutherococcus senticosus, p. 94).
Caution Do not take American ginseng
during pregnancy.

244

Papaver rhoeas (Papaveraceae)

Red Poppy

Description Delicate hairy-stemmed annual
growing to 3 ft (90 cm). Has basal rosette of
lance-shaped leaves and deeply incised stem
leaves, 4-petaled red flowers with black anthers,
and small rounded seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Red poppy is native
to Europe, North Africa, and temperate regions
of Asia, and is naturalized in North and South
America. It thrives on cultivated land and on
road verges. The flowers are picked in summer.
Parts Used Flowers.

Constituents Red poppy contains alkaloids
(including papaverine, rhoeadine, isorhoeadine, and
many others), meconic acid, mekocyanin, mucilage,
and tannin. The alkaloids are similar to those in the
opium poppy (P. somniferum, see following entry),
but are much milder.

History & Folklore According to Agnus
Castus, writing in the 14th century, “If a man hawe
ony peyne aboutyn his eyne or if a man hawe a
mygreyn tak this herb and stamp it and nedle it
with oyle de olywe and anoynt ther-with the
forhed and it schal amende the syth and slake
the peyne and distroye the mygreyn.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Red poppy
flowers are mildly analgesic and sedative, and
have long been used in European herbal medicine,
particularly for ailments in children and the elderly.

Chiefly employed as a mild pain reliever and as a
treatment for irritable coughs, red poppy also helps
reduce nervous overactivity. The herb may be used
in the treatment of insomnia, general irritability,
coughs—especially paroxysmal coughs—and
asthma, and is generally given as a syrup.

Related Species See also opium poppy
(P. somniferum, following entry), Mexican poppy
(Argemone mexicano, p. 171), and California poppy
(Eschscholzia californica, p. 207).

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. All parts of red poppy except the
seeds are potentially toxic if eaten.

Papaver somniferum
(Papaveraceae)

Opium Poppy

Description Thick-stemmed annual growing
to about 3 ft (I m). Has many dull green leaves,
solitary pink, purple or white flowers, and globe-
shaped seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to western
Asia, opium poppy is now cultivated commercially
around the world as the source of morphine and
codeine, and as an illegal crop for the production
of opium and heroin. During the summer, the seed
capsules are cut and the white latex that exudes is
gathered the next day and dried.

Part Used Latex.

Constituents Opium poppy contains more
than 40 opium alkaloids, including morphine
(up to 20%), narcotine (about 5%), codeine
(about 1%), and papaverine (about 1%). It also
contains meconic acid, albumin, mucilage, sugars,
resin, and wax. Many of the opium poppy’s
alkaloids have a well-established therapeutic
action. Morphine is one of the most powerful
analgesics of all, used extensively in conventional
medicine to relieve pain, especially in terminal
illness. Codeine is a milder analgesic used for
headaches and other pain, and in the symptomatic
treatment of diarrhea. Opium’s strongly addictive
nature is well established.

History & Folklore Cultivated for its
medicinal properties for at least 4,000 years,
the opium poppy was introduced to Greece
about 3,000 years ago, and from there spread
throughout Europe. It was unknown in China
until the 7th century ce, and in Japan until the
15th century. It is mentioned in the Assyrian
herbals (c. 1700 bce), and the Greek physician
Dioscorides (40-90 ce) wrote that “a decoction of
the leaves and flowerheads if drunk and bathed on
the head is unrivaled in inducing sleep. The mashed
heads, mixed with flour, make a useful plaster in
inflammations and St. Anthony’s fire [erysipelas, a
bacterial infection of the skin].”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Opium (the
dried latex) is a potent narcotic, analgesic, and
antispasmodic, and has been taken to relieve pain
of various kinds. In all the main herbal traditions it is
regarded as a powerfully “cold” remedy, reducing
physical function and sedating or suppressing
nervous activity, pain, and coughs. In view of its
addictive nature, opium is mainly used after other
less powerful analgesics have failed to bring relief. It
is also an effective remedy for acute diarrhea and
severe coughs. Pharmaceutical drugs produced
from opium poppy include morphine and codeine.
Research Much research has been done,
confirming most of the uses of opium poppy
listed above.

Related Species See also red poppy
(P. rhoeas, preceding entry), Mexican poppy
(Argemone mexicana, p. 171), and California
poppy (Eschscholzia californica, p. 207).

O Cautions Use opium poppy only under
professional supervision. It is subject to legal
restrictions in most countries.

Opium poppy s seed
capsules contain a
latex that is the source
of morphine.

P EG A N U M HARM A LA

Parietaria officinalis syn. P. diffusa
(Urticaceae)

Pellitory-of-the-Wall

Description Annual growing to 28 in (70 cm).
Has deep green leaves, greenish flowers, and small
dark seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
this plant is commonplace in southern countries,
where it is found on walls and in dry stony sites.

It is gathered in summer when in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Pellitory-of-the-wall contains
flavonoids and tannins.

History & Folklore For more than 2,000
years, pellitory-of-the-wall has been valued as a
diuretic, as a soother of chronic coughs, and as
a balm for wounds and burns.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pellitory-of-the
wall is chiefly employed as a diuretic, demulcent,
and stone-preventing herb. In European herbal
medicine, it is regarded as having a restorative
action on the kidneys, supporting and strengthening
their function. It has been prescribed for conditions
such as nephritis, pyelitis (inflammation of the
kidney), kidney stones, renal colic (pain caused
by kidney stones), cystitis, and edema (fluid
retention). It is also occasionally taken as a laxative.
Caution Do not take if suffering from hay fever
or other allergies.

Paullinia cupana syn. P. sorbilis
(Sapindaceae)

Guarana

Description Woody vine growing to a height
of 33 ft (10 m). Has divided compound leaves,
clusters of inconspicuous yellow flowers, and pear-
shaped fruit that contains small shiny brown seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Guarana is native
to tropical forests of the Brazilian Amazon, and
is also cultivated in Brazil. The seeds are gathered
when ripe.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents Guarana contains xanthine

derivatives (including up to 7% caffeine, together
with theobromine and theophylline), tannins, and
saponins. The xanthines are stimulant and diuretic,
and reduce fatigue over the short term.

History & Folklore In Brazil,
guarana is traditionally prepared
by roasting, crushing, and drying
the seeds. The resulting “cakes”
are made into a tea, which is taken
to counter fatigue or to treat
diarrhea. Guarana has recently
Seeds become a popular alternative to coffee.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Guarana’s
medicinal uses are similar to those of coffee
(Coffea arobica, p. 192)—it is taken for headache
and migraine, for mild depression, and to boost
energy levels. The problems that apply to long¬
term or excessive consumption of coffee also
apply to guarana—both stimulate over the short
term but tend to inhibit the body’s restorative
processes over the longer term. In view of
guarana’s high tannin content, long-term use
is even less advisable, because tannins impair
the intestines’ ability to absorb nutrients.
Nevertheless, guarana is a useful short-term
remedy for boosting energy, or for treating
a tension headache that cannot be treated
with rest. Guarana’s astringency also treats
chronic diarrhea.

Related Species P. yoco, native to the Colombian
Amazon, is used by indigenous peoples to reduce
fevers, as a stimulant, and as a post-malarial treatment.
Caution Do not take guarana if suffering
from cardiovascular disease or from high blood
pressure. It should also not be taken during
pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Pausinystalia yohimbe
syn. Corynanthe yohimbe
(Rubiaceae)

Yohimbe

Description Evergreen tree growing to
100 ft (30 m). Has reddish-brown bark,
oblong or elliptical leaves, and clusters of small
yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Yohimbe is native to
the forests of western Africa, especially Cameroon,
Zaire, and Gabon. The bark is gathered at anytime
of year.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Yohimbe contains approximately
6% indole alkaloids (including yohimbine), pigments,
and tannins. The alkaloids have a cerebral stimulant
action at moderate doses, but are highly toxic in
large doses.

History & Folklore Yohimbe has an ancient
reputation in western Africa, especially among
the Bantu people, as a male aphrodisiac and
mild hallucinogen.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Yohimbe is little
used in herbal medicine owing to its potential
toxicity. In western Africa, it is often employed
as a stimulant and as a means to counter erectile
dysfunction. Yohimbine has been used in
conventional medicine in the treatment of
erectile dysfunction.

O Cautions Take yohimbe only under
professional supervision. The herb is subject to
legal restrictions in many countries.

Peganum harmala
(Zygophyllaceae)

Harmala,

African Rue

Description Multi-branched shrubby perennial
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has deeply cleft linear
leaves, white 5-petaled flowers, and rounded
3-celled seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Middle
East, North Africa, and southern Europe, harmala
is naturalized in other subtropical regions, including
Australia. It thrives in saline soil in semidesert areas.
The seeds are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Seeds, root.

Constituents Harmala contains up to 4%
indole alkaloids (including harmine, harmaline,
and harmalol). Harmine has been used to help
alleviate the tremors of Parkinsonism.

Harmala, which thrives in dry conditions, has been used
as an intoxicant in the Middle East.

History & Folklore Since the earliest times,
harmala has been used in the Middle East as
a means to induce intoxication. Known to the
Greek physicians Dioscorides (40-90 ce) and
Galen (131 -200 ce), as well as to their Arabic
counterpart Avicenna (980-1037 ce), harmala
was also used to expel intestinal worms and to
promote the onset of menstrual flow.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Despite its long
history as a euphoric and purportedly aphrodisiac
herb, harmala is little used in contemporary
Western herbal medicine because of its potential
toxicity. The seeds have been taken, especially
in the Middle East, to treat a very wide range
of conditions, including high blood pressure, eye
problems, psychiatric disorders, depression,
Parkinson’s disease, and cancer. In central Asia, the
root is a popular medicinal remedy that is used to
treat rheumatism and nervous conditions.

© Caution This plant is toxic and should not be
used under any circumstances.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

PERGULARIA EXTENSA

Pergularia extensa
(Asclepiadaceae)

Pergularia

Description Perennial climber with broad oval
leaves and small greenish-white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Pergularia is native
to India. Its aerial parts are gathered throughout
the year.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Pergularia contains a resin, bitter
principles, and plant sterols.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pergularia is
thought to have bitter, expectorant, diuretic, and
laxative properties, and is employed in several
ways in Indian herbal medicine. It is prescribed as
a treatment for bronchitis and asthma. Pergularia
is also used as a means to curtail heavy menstrual
or non-menstrual uterine bleeding. Juice from the
leaves may be applied to relieve the pain and
swelling of cysts and rheumatic joints.

Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae)

Parsley

Description Annual herb growing to I ft
(30 cm). Has an erect stem, bright green
compound smooth or crinkled leaves, small white
flowers growing in clusters, and small ribbed seeds.
Habitat & Cultivation Parsley is native to
Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Today
it is rarely found in the wild, but is cultivated
throughout the world as a nutritious salad herb.
The leaves may be picked from spring to autumn,
and the seeds are gathered when just ripe.

Parts Used Leaves, root, seeds.

Constituents Parsley contains a volatile oil
(including about 20% myristicin, about 18% apiole,
and many other terpenes), flavonoids, phthalides,
coumarins (including bergapten), vitamins A, C,
and E, and high levels of iron. The flavonoids are
anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. Myristicin and
apiole have diuretic properties. The volatile oil
relieves cramping pain and flatulence, and is a
strong uterine stimulant.

History & Folklore Parsley was known in
ancient Greece and Rome—but more as a diuretic,
digestive tonic, and menstrual stimulant than as a
salad herb. In Rome, parsley was associated with
the goddess Persephone, queen of the
underworld, and was used in funeral ceremonies.
Parsley was introduced to Britain in 1548.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The fresh
leaves are highly nutritious and can be considered
a natural vitamin and mineral supplement in their
own right. The seeds have a much stronger diuretic
action than the leaves, and may be substituted for
246 celery seeds (Apium graveolens, p. 64) in the

treatment of gout, rheumatism, and arthritis. Both
plants act by encouraging the flushing out of waste
products from the inflamed joints, and the waste’s
subsequent elimination via the kidneys. Parsley root
is taken as a treatment for flatulence, cystitis, and
rheumatic conditions. Parsley is also valued as a
promoter of menstruation, being helpful both
in stimulating a delayed period and in relieving
menstrual pain.

Cautions Parsley is a safe herb at normal dosage
and consumption levels, but excessive quantities of
the seeds are toxic. Do not take the seeds during
pregnancy or if suffering from kidney disease.

Peumus boldus (Apiaceae)

Boldo

Description Strongly aromatic multibranched
evergreen shrub or tree growing to 20 ft (6 m).

Has egg-shaped leathery leaves with a lemony
scent, clusters of white or yellow bell-shaped
flowers, and small yellow berries.

Habitat & Cultivation
Boldo is native to Chile
and Peru, and has
become naturalized in the
Mediterranean region and
the West Coast of North
America. It grows on dry
sunny slopes and in mountain pastures in the
Andes, where it is widely cultivated. The leaves
are gathered throughout the year.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Boldo contains 0.7% isoquinoline
alkaloids (including boldine), as well as a volatile oil
and flavonoids.

History & Folklore Boldo is a valued remedy
in Latin American herbal medicine and is used by
the Araucanian people in Chile as atonic.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Boldo stimulates
liver activity and bile flow and is chiefly valued as a
remedy for gallstones and liver or gallbladder pain.

It is normally taken for a few weeks at a time, either
as a tincture or infusion. Boldo is also a mild urinary
antiseptic and demulcent and may be taken for
infections such as cystitis.

Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. This herb
is subject to legal restrictions in some countries.

Pfaffia paniculata (Amaranthaceae)

Suma,

Brazilian Ginseng

Description Climbing perennial with a thick
rootstock, growing up through rainforest trees into
the forest canopy.

Dried leaves

Habitat & Cultivation Suma is native to
rainforests of South America, from Venezuela
to southern Brazil.

Parts Used Root.

Constituents Suma contains triterpene
saponins (pfaffosides), sterols (including beta-
ecdysone), and minerals (including significant
levels of germanium).

History & Folklore Suma has been used by
the people of the Amazon rainforest from the
earliest times for conditions as varied as wound
healing, diabetes, and cancer. Also taken for its
aphrodisiac qualities, suma has become a popular
herbal medicine in Brazil, where it is known as
para todo (“for all”), or Brazilian ginseng.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Suma has many
medicinal applications, most centred around three
areas of activity: as a hormonal and glandular tonic,
as an immune stimulant and detoxifying agent,
and in cancer prevention and treatment. Suma
is perhaps best known as a male sexual tonic, but
it is equally effective for women and has value in
treating menstrual and menopausal problems. Suma
root enhances nonspecific immunity and has a role
to play in treating chronic infection and lowered
immune resistance.

Research Research into suma suggests that it can
be useful in cancer prevention and treatment;
several of the pfaffosides have been shown to
prevent tumor growth in laboratory conditions. The
pfaffosides are chemically similar to the ginsenosides
found in ginseng (Panaxginseng, p. I 18), and, like
ginseng, suma’s acclaimed value as an aphrodisiac
appears to have a scientific basis. Male rats with
depressed sexual function were observed to become
more sexually active on being given a suma extract.
Cautions Avoid taking suma during pregnancy
and while breastfeeding.

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae)

Lrench Bean,

Haricot Bean

Description Slender-stemmed, annual climber
growing to 13 ft (4 m). Has pointed oval leaflets,
curly tendrils, clusters of white or lilac flowers,
and a beanpod containing kidney-shaped seeds.
Habitat & Cultivation Lrench beans are
thought to have originated from South America.
Today, varieties are cultivated all over the world.
The ripe beans are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Beanpods, beans.

Constituents Lrench beans contain lectins,
saponins, flavonoids, allantoin, amino acids,
and sugars.

History & Folklore Lrench beans have been
used since antiquity to treat diabetes. In A Modern
Herbal (1931), Mrs. Grieve records that “because

PHYTOLACCA AMERICANA

of the seed’s close resemblance to a male
testicle... [ancient Egyptians] made it an object
of sacred worship and forbade its use as a food.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In addition to
being an important food in many parts of the
world, French beans, and beans in general, offer
several health benefits. As part of a balanced
nutritious diet, they help to lower high blood
pressure and raised cholesterol levels. They are
hypoglycemic and promote more stable blood-
sugar levels. Like soy ( Glycine max, p. 217), they
are estrogenic and will help reduce menopausal
symptoms. The pods act as a medium-strength
diuretic, stimulating urine flow and the clearance of
toxins from the body. Powdered beans may be
dusted onto eczema to ease itching and dry skin.

French beans are intensively cultivated all over the world.

Phellodendron amurense
(Rutaceae)

Huang Bai

Description Deciduous tree growing to 39 ft
(12 m). Has compound leaves with 7 lance-shaped
leaflets, clusters of green flowers, and round berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Huang bai is native
to China, Japan, and Korea, and is cultivated in
northeastern China. The bark of 10-year-old
trees is collected in spring.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Huang bai contains isoquinoline
alkaloids (including berberine), sesquiterpene
lactones, and plant sterols. Due to its alkaloid
content, huang bai is antimicrobial and antibiotic.
History & Folklore Listed in the Divine
Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing),
of the I st century ce, huang bai was regarded
as an herb to be used with care.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Strongly bitter,
huang bai is used within Chinese herbal medicine
to ‘‘drain damp heat.” It is prescribed for conditions

such as acute diarrhea, jaundice, vaginal infection
(including trichomonas), and certain skin conditions.
It is also given for urinary system disorders such as
frequent urination, pain, and infection.

Research Clinical trials in China indicate that
the bark is useful in the treatment of meningitis
and conjunctivitis.

O Cautions Take huang bai only under
professional supervision. Do not take huang bai
during pregnancy.

Phyllanthus amarus
(Euphorbiaceae)

Phyllanthus

Description Slender annual herb, to 2 ft
(60 cm) in height, with oval leaves and small
yellowish-green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Phyllanthus is native
to the Indian subcontinent and found commonly in
central and southern India. The plant is harvested
when required.

Parts Used Leaves, aerial parts.

Constituents Phyllanthus leaves contain lignans
(including phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin),
flavonoids, and alkaloids.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Phyllanthus is
a traditional Ayurvedic remedy used to treat liver
and cardiovascular problems. It combines well
with picrorrhiza (Picrorrhiza kurroa, p. 248) in
treating hepatitis B and other liver disorders.
Research A growing body of research shows
that phyllanthus has antiviral activity, specifically
against the hepatitis B virus. Research also indicates
that the leaves are diuretic, and lower blood
pressure and blood-sugar levels. Not all the studies
have shown that phyllanthus works effectively in
treating hepatitis B, but overall the evidence
is positive, with some trials showing significant
improvement in measures of infection. In
laboratory experiments, phyllanthus inhibits
RNA replication of the hepatitis B virus.

O Caution Use on professional advice only.

Physalis alkekengi syn. P. franchetti
(Solanaceae)

Winter Cherry,

Cape Gooseberry

Description Perennial herb growing to
32 in (80 cm). Has oval-to diamond-shaped leaves,
long-stemmed white flowers, and a translucent
papery sheath surrounding an orange-red fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Winter cherry is
native to central and southern Europe and China. It
grows wild along damp roadsides. It is widely

cultivated in warm temperate and
subtropical regions, including North and South
America and South Africa. The fruit is gathered
once it has ripened in summer.

Parts Used Fruit.

Constituents Winter cherry contains
flavonoids, plant sterols, and vitamins A (carotene)
and C. The roots contain tro pan e-type alkaloids,
physalin A and B. Water extracts of the plant may
have an anti-estrogenic effect.

History & Folklore The Greek physician
Dioscorides (I st century ce) considered winter
cherry to be medicinally beneficial as a diuretic and
a treatment for jaundice. In Spain, a therapeutic
wine made with the fruit was taken to treat excess
fluid retention and problems of the urinary tract.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Though commonly
eaten as a fruit, winter cherry is also a useful diuretic.
The fruit is traditionally used within European herbal
medicine to treat kidney and bladder stones, fluid
retention, and gout. It has also been taken to
reduce fever.

Caution The foliage and unripe fruit are
harmful if eaten.

Phytolacca americana

syn. P. decandra (Phytolaccaceae)

Pokeweed

Description Herbaceous perennial
growing to 10 ft (3 m). Has alternate
lance-shaped leaves, spikes of greenish-
white flowers, and clusters of fleshy,
purple berries.

Habitat &

Cultivation
Native to North
America, pokeweed is
now naturalized in the
Mediterranean region. It
thrives in damp woodland
and in open areas. The root
is unearthed in late autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Pokeweed
contains triterpenoid saponins,
lectins, lignans, resin,
and mucilage. The
triterpenoid saponins are
strongly anti-inflammatory,
the lignans are antiviral, and
the lectins are mitogenic
(break up chromosomes).

History & Folklore Pokeweed
was widely used by Native
Americans and European settlers

Pokeweed contains proteins
that act against viral infection.

247

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

PIC RA S M A EXCELS A

as a poultice for skin diseases, sores, ulcers, and
tumors. It was also given internally to relieve
pain and to induce vomiting.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pokeweed is
taken internally as a tincture in small amounts
to treat rheumatic and arthritic conditions.

The root has also been used to treat respiratory
tract infections, such as sore throats and tonsillitis,
as well as swollen glands and chronic infections.

The herb is sometimes prescribed for pain and
infection of the ovaries or testes, and as a lymphatic
“decongestant,” stimulating the clearance of waste
products. As a poultice or ointment, it is applied
to sore and infected nipples and breasts, acne,
folliculitis, fungal infections, and scabies.

© ©Cautions The plant is highly toxic in
overdose. Use only under professional
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.

Picrasma excelsa syn. Picraenia
excelsa (Simaroubaceae)

Quassia

Description Deciduous tree growing to
100 ft (30 m). Has smooth gray bark, compound
leaves, small yellow flowers, and pea-sized
black fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to tropical
America and the Caribbean, quassia grows in forests
and near water. It is cultivated mainly for medicinal
use. The bark is harvested throughout the year
Part Used Bark.

Constituents Quassia contains quassinoid
bitter principles (including quassin), alkaloids, a
coumarin (scopoletin), and vitamin B,. Some of
the quassinoids have been shown to have cytotoxic
(cell-killing) and anti-leukemic actions.

History & Folklore Quassia bark was first
introduced into Europe from Surinam, then a
Dutch colony, in 1756. The herb is named after
Quassi, a native healer, who told Europeans of
its therapeutic value.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The strongly
bitter quassia supports and strengthens weak
digestive systems. It increases bile flow and the
secretion of salivary juices and stomach acid,
and improves the digestive process as a whole.
Quassia is commonly used to stimulate the
appetite, especially in the treatment of anorexia.

Its bitterness has led to it being used for malaria
and other fevers, and it is given in the Caribbean
for dysentery. The bark has been used in the
form of an enema to expel threadworms and
other parasites. A decoction of the bark may
be used as an insect repellent and to treat headlice.
Cautions Excessive doses may, in some cases,
cause digestive irritation and vomiting. Do not
248 take during pregnancy.

Picrorrhiza kurroa
(Scrophulariaceae)

Picrorrhiza

Description Hairy perennial with serrated
elliptical leaves and white or lilac flowers growing
in spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Picrorrhiza is native
to the mountains of India, Nepal, and Tibet. The
rhizome is gathered in autumn.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Picrorrhiza contains the bitter
glycoside kutkin (composed of picrosides I to III
and kutkoside), iridoids, cucurbitacins, and apocynin.
Apocynin is powerfully anti-inflammatory and
reduces platelet aggregation.

History & Folklore Picrorrhiza has been used
in Ayurvedic medicine as a laxative and bitter tonic
since the earliest times.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In India,
picrorrhiza is used as a bitter tonic, equivalent in
many respects to gentian (Gentiano lutea, p. 99),
and given for a wide range of digestive and liver
troubles, such as indigestion, constipation, jaundice,
and hepatitis. In China, it is chiefly employed to
treat chronic diarrhea and dysentery. Picrorrhiza
also helps treat asthma, acute and chronic
infections, conditions where the immune system
is compromised, and autoimmune diseases,
including psoriasis and vitiligo. The herb’s
traditional use for liver disorders is well founded,
and picrorrhiza may play an important role in
treating liver disease.

Research In 1992 Indian trials, extracts of
picrorrhiza were shown to boost immunity, and to
have a specific action against Leishmania donovani,
which causes the tropical parasitic disease known
as leishmaniasis. Indian research also indicates that
picrorrhiza is of therapeutic value in the treatment
of autoimmune disease.

© Caution Take picrorrhiza only under
professional supervision.

Pimento officinalis
(Myrtaceae)

Allspice

Description Aromatic evergreen tree growing
to 39 ft (12 m). Has leathery oblong leaves, clusters
of small white flowers, and tiny green berries that
turn brown as they become ripe.

Habitat & Cultivation Allspice is native to the
Caribbean and to Central and South America.

The berries are gathered before they are fully
ripe because the volatile oil content reduces as
they mature.

Parts Used Berries, leaves, essential oil.

Constituents Allspice contains volatile oil
(about 4%, mostly eugenol—up to 80%),
lignins, and terpenoids.

History & Folklore Used as a spice in the
Caribbean before the arrival of Europeans, allspice
is now an ingredient in many well-known sauces,
chutneys, and condiments.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A digestive
stimulant, allspice is taken to relieve flatulence and
indigestion. It may also be used to treat diarrhea.
Allspice is often combined with herbs that have a
tonic or laxative effect. The herb has an action that
is similar to that of cloves (Eugenia coryophylloto,
p. 97); both are stimulant, stomach-settling, and
antiseptic. Allspice essential oil is markedly
antiseptic and analgesic.

Research Taking a lead from allspice’s use in
Costa Rica as a menopause remedy, scientists
found that the berries have a strong estrogenic
activity. A 2009 paper suggested that allspice
may well help with menopausal symptoms.

Studies also indicate that allspice lowers high
blood pressure.

Cautions Do not take essential oil internally
without professional guidance. Do not take allspice
as a medicine during pregnancy.

Pimpinella anisum (Apiaceae)

Anise

Description Erect annual growing to 2 ft
(60 cm), with feathery leaves, umbels of yellow
flowers, and ridged, gray-green seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Anise is native to
the eastern Mediterranean, western Asia, and
North Africa. It is widely cultivated for its seeds,
which are used for medicinal purposes and as a
flavoring in cooking.

Parts Used Seeds, essential oil.

Constituents Anise contains a volatile oil
(comprising 70-90% anethole, together with
methylchavicol and other terpenes),
furanocoumarins, flavonoids, fatty acids,
phenylpropanoids, sterols, and proteins. Anethole
has an observed estrogenic effect, and the seeds as
a whole are mildly estrogenic. This effect may
substantiate the herb’s use as a stimulant of sexual
drive and of breast-milk production.

History & Folklore After examining the
records of Cyprus hospital monastery, historians
discovered that anise was used to treat plague
and cholera during the Ottoman Period
(1571-1878 ce).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Anise seeds are
known for their ability to reduce gas and bloating,
and to settle digestion. They are commonly given
to infants and children to relieve colic, and to
people of all ages to ease nausea and indigestion.

PIPER ANGUSTIFOLIA

Anise seeds’ antispasmodic properties make
them helpful in countering period pain, asthma,
whooping cough, and bronchitis. The seeds’
expectorant action justifies their use for these
respiratory ailments. Anise seeds are thought
to increase breast-milk production and may be
beneficial in treating impotence and frigidity. Anise
essential oil is used for similar complaints, and is
also used externally to treat lice and scabies.
Research Anise essential oil has been shown to
have significant antifungal activity, including against
Candida albicans.

Cautions Do not take anise essential oil
internally except under professional supervision.

Do not take anise during
pregnancy, except in amounts
normally used in cooking.
Self-help Uses Acidity &
indigestion, p. 307; Digestive
upsets, gas & colic, p. 3 \i
Stomach spasm, p. 305; Gas
& bloating, p. 306.

r : m

Anise seeds, which
benefit digestion, are
harvested when ripe
in autumn.

Pinguicula vulgaris
(Lentibulariaceae)

Butterwort

Description Insectivorous perennial growing
to 4 in (10 cm). Has fleshy leaves in a basal rosette
and double-lipped, purple-blue flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern
and western Europe, butterwort grows in moorland
and on mountains. The leaves are gathered
in midsummer.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Butterwort contains mucilage,
tannins, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and valeric
acid. Cinnamic acid has antispasmodic properties.
History & Folklore Butterwort was much
used in Welsh herbal medicine as a purgative.

In Norway, the plant has been used to curdle
reindeer milk, and medicinally, to treat wounds
and ringworm.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Butterwort is
little employed in European herbal medicine
today. Its main use is as a cough remedy, with
properties similar to those of sundew (Drosera
rotundifolia, p. 203), another insect-eating plant.
Butterwort may be used to treat chronic and
convulsive coughs.

Related Species The similar P. grandiflora,
native to the Pyrenees, has been used to treat
spasmodic coughs.

O Caution Take butterwort only under
professional supervision.

may be taken for asthma, bronchitis, and other
respiratory infections, and for digestive disorders
such as gas. Scots pine branches and stems yield
a thick resin, which is also antiseptic within the
respiratory tract. The seeds yield an essential oil
with diuretic and respiratory-stimulant properties.
Cautions Do not use Scots pine if prone to
allergic skin reactions. Do not take the essential oil
internally except under professional supervision.

Scots pine leaves, seeds, and oil have a mildly antiseptic
effect within the respiratory and urinary tracts.

Pinus sylvestris (Pinaceae)

Scots Pine

Piper angustifolia (Piperaceae)

Matico

Description Coniferous tree growing to
100 ft (30 m). Has reddish-brown bark, pairs of
fine, needle-like leaves, yellowish buds in winter,
and oval to conical cones.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to mountainous
regions of Europe and north and west Asia, Scots
pine is now found throughout the northern
hemisphere. The leaves are gathered in summer.
The stems are usually harvested when the tree
is felled.

Parts Used Leaves, branches, stems, seeds,
essential oil.

Constituents The leaves of Scots pine contain
a volatile oil (consisting mainly of alpha-pinene),
resin, and bitter principles.

History & Folklore Pine oil is added to
disinfectants and other preparations. The distilled
resin produces turpentine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Scots pine leaves,
taken internally, have a mildly antiseptic effect within
the chest, and may also be used for arthritic and
rheumatic problems. Essential oil from the leaves

Description Perennial shrub reaching 23 ft (7 m).
Has deeply veined aromatic lance-shaped leaves,
spikes of tiny yellow flowers, and small black fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Matico is native to
mountainous regions of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador.

It is found in the wild and widely cultivated in these
and other countries in tropical South America. The
leaves are gathered throughout the year.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Matico contains a volatile oil
(including camphor, borneol, and azulene),
alkaloids, tannins, mucilage, and resins.

History & Folklore Matico was and is

used by Andean and Amazonian people as a
wound-healing remedy and urinary antiseptic.
European settlers learned of it in the 19th century
and it became an official drug in some South
American pharmacopoeias.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Matico is an
aromatic stimulant, diuretic, and astringent used
extensively for gastric and intestinal problems,
including peptic ulcers, diarrhea and dysentery.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

PIPER BE TLE

It is commonly used in South American herbal
medicine for internal bleeding, particularly within
the digestive tract—for example, rectal bleeding
and hemorrhoids. It is also taken for bleeding in the
urinary tract. Applied externally, a decoction
of matico makes a valuable remedy for minor
wounds, sore and inflamed skin, and insect bites
and stings. The decoction may also be used as
either a mouthwash or a douche.

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Betel

Description Slender climbing vine growing to
16 ft (5 m). Has heart-shaped leaves, tiny yellow-
green flowers, and small spherical fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Betel is native to
Malaysia and southern India. It is widely cultivated in
much of southern Asia, East Africa and Madagascar,
and the Caribbean. The leaves are gathered
throughout the year and dried for extracts or
to use whole.

Betel leaves, traditionally chewed with areca nut and lime,
give a mild sensation of well-being.

250

Parts Used Leaves, root, fruit.

Constituents Betel leaves contain up to
I % volatile oil (including cadinene, chavicol,
chavibetol and cineole). As with many volatile oils,
the percentages are variable. Malaysian samples
have been shown to contain up to 69% chavibetol.
History & Folklore Betel leaves, wrapped
around areca nut (Areca catechu ) and lime
(Citrus aurantiifolia), are known to have been
chewed in India and Southeast Asia for several
thousand years. Betel leaves are described in the
Mahavasama, the most ancient Sri Lankan text.
Chewing quickly produces a red-stained saliva and
does not, despite what is commonly thought, lead
to blackened teeth. However, long-term use of
betel leaves and areca nut is considered to increase

the incidence of cancer of the mouth and tongue.
Ironically, the habit of chewing betel leaves is now
giving way in many regions to cigarette smoking.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Betel leaves
are chiefly used as a gentle stimulant, since they
apparently induce a mild sensation of well-being.
They also affect the digestive system, stimulating
salivary secretions, relieving flatulence, and
preventing worm infestation. In many Asian
traditions, including Ayurvedic medicine, betel
leaves are thought to have aphrodisiac and nerve
tonic properties. In Chinese herbal medicine,
betel root, leaves, and fruit are sometimes used
as a mild tonic and stomach-settling herb. The
root has been used with black pepper (P. nigrum,
below) or jequirity (Abrus precatorius, p. 158)
to produce sterility in women.

Caution The observed increase in the occurrence
of oral cancers in regular users makes it unwise to
chew betel.

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Cubeb

Description Climbing evergreen perennial
growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has oval to oblong
leaves, small flowers forming spikes, and round
brown fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Indonesia,
cubeb is cultivated in much of tropical Asia, especially
in the shade of coffee bushes (Coffea arabica,
p. 192). The fruit is gathered when immature.
Part Used Lruit.

Constituents Cubeb contains a volatile oil
(up to 20%), a bitter principle (cubebin), an
alkaloid (piperidine), resin, and fixed oil.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Like other
members of the pepper family, cubeb has a
significant antiflatulent and antiseptic action. The
fruit is used medicinally as a means to counter
infections of the urinary tract, and has been taken
in the past as a treatment for gonorrhea. In
addition, the fruit is helpful in relieving digestive
problems such as flatulence and bloating. Cubeb
is occasionally employed as an expectorant in the
treatment of chronic bronchitis.

Cautions Cubeb should not be taken by people
suffering from kidney disease or inflammatory
conditions of the digestive tract.

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Pepper

Description Perennial woody climber growing
to about 16 ft (5 m). Has large oval leaves, spikes
of small white flowers, and clusters of small round
fruits, which ripen from green to red.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
southwestern India, pepper is now cultivated in
tropical areas around the world. The fruit is
harvested from plants that are at least 3 years old.
Green peppercorns are picked unripe and pickled,
black peppercorns are picked unripe and dried,
red peppercorns are picked ripe and dried, and
white peppercorns are picked ripe and soaked
in water for 8 days before drying.

Pepper, here drying after the harvest, is still highly valued
both medicinally and in cooking.

Parts Used Lruit, essential oil.

Constituents Pepper contains a volatile
oil (including beta-bisabolene, camphene, beta-
caryophyllene, and many other terpenes and
sesquiterpenes), up to 9% alkaloids (especially
piperine, which is largely responsible for the
herb’s acrid taste), about I 1% proteins, and
small quantities of minerals.

History & Folklore Cultivated as a spice and
a medicine since ancient times, pepper was a vital
commodity in world trade for thousands of years.
Attilathe Hun is reputed to have demanded
3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of pepper as ransom during
his siege of the city of Rome (408 ce).

Medicinal Actions & Uses The familiar sharp
taste of pepper reflects the stimulant and antiseptic
effect it has on the digestive tract and the circulatory
system. Pepper is commonly taken to warm the
body, or to improve digestive function in cases
of nausea, stomachache, flatulence, bloating,
constipation, or lack of appetite. The essential oil
eases rheumatic pain and toothache. It is antiseptic
and antibacterial, and reduces fever.

Research Piperine, the main active constituent
within black pepper, has significant therapeutic
benefits, with a 2012 research paper listing
"immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antiasthmatic,
anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer and
antiamebic properties." Piperine appears to aid the
absorption of herbal and chemical medicines, e.g.
curcumin (from turmeric, Curcuma longa, see
p. 90), and in some cases, to slow their clearance
by the liver.

Caution Do not take the essential oil internally
without professional supervision.

Self-help Use Back pain, p. 3 13.

PLUMBAGO ZEYLANICA

Piscidia erythrina (Fabaceae)

Jamaica Dogwood

Description Deciduous tree or shrub growing
to 49 ft (15 m). Compound leaves, blue to white
flowers with red stripes, and winged seed pods.
Habitat & Cultivation Jamaica dogwood
is native to the southern U.S., Central America,
northern South America, and the Caribbean. It
is grown mainly for its wood, which is used in
boat-building. The root bark is stripped when
the tree is felled.

Part Used Root bark.

Constituents Jamaica dogwood contains
isoflavones, phytosterols, tannins, and organic acids.
The isoflavones are antispasmodic.

History & Folklore The pounded bark and
twigs have been used by Native Caribs and Afro-
Caribbeans to stupefy fish.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Jamaica dogwood
is a useful and undervalued remedy that acts
both as a sedative and as a painkiller. It is chiefly
employed in the treatment of insomnia and
overexcitability, as it calms mental activity. It is also
prescribed for nerve pain, toothache, and period
pain. As an antispasmodic, it is useful for treating
muscle spasms, especially in the back, and
spasmodic respiratory ailments such as asthma
and whooping cough.

Cautions Do not take Jamaica dogwood
during pregnancy or if you are suffering from
heart problems.

Pistacia lentiscus (Anacardiaceae)

Mastic Tree

Description Multibranched perennial growing
to 10 ft (3 m). Has small elliptical leathery leaves,
clusters of reddish flowers, and round scarlet fruit
that ripens to black.

Habitat & Cultivation Mastic tree is native
to the Mediterranean region. It grows wild in scrub
and on wasteground and is cultivated for its resin,
which is collected from incisions made in the bark
in summer and autumn.

Part Used Resin.

Constituents The resin contains alpha- and
beta-masticoresins, a volatile oil (comprising
mainly alpha-pinene), tannins, masticin, and mastic
acid. Pinenes are strongly antiseptic.

History & Folklore Mastic resin was used
by the ancient Egyptians for embalming the dead.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In the recent
past, mastic resin was little used, but contemporary
research indicates that this should be reconsidered.
Traditionally mastic extracts have been taken for
coughs and bronchitis, and applied to the skin
for boils, sores, and ulcers. Recent studies point to

the gum resin being useful in treating and preventing
atheroma (fatty deposits in the arteries), to have
antifungal and liver-protective activity, and to aid in
conditions such as arthritis and gout.

Related Species The pistachio is produced by
P. vera, also native to the Mediterranean region.

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Common Plantain

Description Perennial plant growing to 10 in
(25 cm). Has a basal rosette of broad, deeply
veined leaves and dense clusters of tiny green
flowers on spikes.

Habitat & Cultivation Common plantain
is native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia.
Rarely cultivated, it is normally picked from the
wild. The leaves are gathered throughout
the summer.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Common plantain contains
iridoids (such as aucubin), flavonoids (including
apigenin), tannins, plant acids, and mucilage.
Aucubin increases uric acid excretion by the
kidneys; apigenin is anti-inflammatory.

History & Folklore In Gaelic, this herb
is known as “the healing plant” because it
was used in Ireland to treat wounds and
bruises. It is a plant that has accompanied
European colonization around the

Common plantain is a

perennial herb that grows
wild in temperate regions.

world—some Native Americans called it
Englishman’s foot,” because it seemed to spring
up in the footsteps of white settlers.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Common plantain
quickly staunches blood flow and encourages the
repair of damaged tissue. It is possible to use it as
a substitute for comfrey (Symphytum officinale,
p. 138) in treating bruises and broken bones.

An ointment or lotion may be used to treat
hemorrhoids, fistulae (abnormal passages in the
skin), and ulcers. Taken internally, common plantain
is diuretic, expectorant, and antimucus. It is
commonly prescribed for conditions including
gastritis, peptic ulcers, diarrhea, dysentery, irritable
bowel syndrome, respiratory inflammation, loss of
voice, and urinary tract bleeding.

Related Species Ribwort plantain (P lanceolata )
is used in the same way as common plantain. Che
qian cao (P. asiatica) is used in Chinese medicine as
a diuretic and to counter mucus.

Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with mucus,
p. 300; Diarrhea, p. 3 18.

Plumbago zeylanica
(Plumbaginaceae)

Ceylon Leadwort

Description Evergreen shrub, often a climber,
growing to 16 ft (5 m). Has oval pointed leaves,
spikes of 5-petaled white flowers, and angled
seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Ceylon leadwort
is native to southern India and Malaysia, and is
now naturalized in much of Southeast Asia and
in Africa. The leaves and root are gathered
throughout the year.

Parts Used Leaves, root.

Constituents Ceylon leadwort contains
apthaquinones, including plumbagin, and phytosterols.
History & Folklore In Africa, the juice of
Ceylon leadwort is used as a tattoo dye.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Ceylon
leadwort root is acrid and stimulates sweating,
and is commonly used as a paste for skin infections
such as ringworm and scabies. The paste is also
applied as a counter-irritant to relieve rheumatic
aches and pains. In India, extracts of the leaves and
root are taken for digestive infections such
as dysentery. In Nepal, a decoction of the root
is used to treat baldness.

Related Species The root of European
leadwort (P. europaea ) has been used to treat
toothache and, in the form of a poultice or plaster,
back pain and sciatica.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Taken internally, the root may be toxic,
and may induce abortion. Do not use Ceylon
leadwort during pregnancy.

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PODOPHYLLUM PELTATUM

Podophyllum peltatum
(Berberidaceae)

American Mandrake

Description Perennial plant growing to
16 in (40 cm). Has a forked stem, two deeply
lobed umbrella-like leaves, white flowers, and
small yellow fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation American mandrake
is native to northeastern North America. It is
commonly found in damp
woodland and pastureland.

The rhizome is unearthed
in autumn.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents The rhizome
of American mandrake contains
lignans (especially podophyllotoxin),
flavonoids, resin, and gums.

The lignans are responsible for
the rhizome’s purgative action. ^

History & Folklore mandrake

American mandrake was much
used as a purgative, emetic, and worm-expelling
herb by Native Americans. In the U.S. in the
19th century, both herbal and conventional
medical practitioners regarded the plant as
the safest and most readily available purge.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Despite
19th-century beliefs in its safety, American mandrake
is no longer taken internally on account of its
cytotoxic (cell-killing) action. However, applied
externally as a poultice, lotion, or ointment, the root
can be an effective treatment for all kinds of warts.
Research The lignans in American mandrake—
podophyllotoxin in particular—act against tumors
and have been extensively researched for their
anticancer potential. Semisynthetic derivatives of
podophyllotoxin appear to be the most promising,
having minimal toxicity.

Related Species The Himalayan P. hexandrum
may have similar actions.

© Cautions Do not take internally. The plant
is subject to legal restrictions in most countries.

Pogostemon cablin syn. P. patchouli
(Lamiaceae)

Patchouli

252

Description Hairy, aromatic perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has square stems, oval leaves, and
spikes bearing whorls of white to light-purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Malaysia and
the Philippines, patchouli is now cultivated in tropical
and subtropical regions around the world. The
shoots and leaves are picked 2 or 3 times a year.
Parts Used Young leaves and shoots, essential oil.

Constituents Patchouli contains a volatile oil
comprising mainly the sesquiterpenes patchoulol
(35%) and bulnesene.

History & Folklore Patchouli has been used
extensively in Asian medicine, featuring in the
Chinese, Indian, and Arabic traditions. Its most
common use has been as an aphrodisiac. The
essential oil is widely employed in India as a
fragrance and as an insect repellent.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Patchouli is
used in herbal medicine in Asia as an aphrodisiac,
antidepressant, and antiseptic. It is also employed
for headaches and fever. Patchouli essential oil is
used in aromatherapy to treat skin complaints. It
is thought to have a regenerative effect on skin
tone and to help clear conditions such as eczema
and acne. The oil may also be used for varicose
veins and hemorroids.

Caution Do not take essential oil internally.

Patchouli is the source of an essential oil.

Polygala senega (Polygalaceae)

Seneca Snakeroot

Description Perennial growing to about 16 in
(40 cm). Has narrow lance-shaped leaves with
toothed edges, and spikes of whitish-pink flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Seneca snakeroot is
native to North America, and found in dry stony
open ground and woodland. It is cultivated in
western Canada. The root is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Seneca snakeroot contains
phenolic acids, methyl salicylate, triterpenoid
saponins (including sengins), polygalitol, and plant
sterols. The triterpenoid saponins promote the
clearing of phlegm from the bronchial tubes.
History & Folklore This plant’s name refers
to the Seneca tribe of North America, who
employed the root as a remedy for snake bite. Seneca
snakeroot was highly valued as a medicine by both
Native Americans and European settlers. In 1768, Dr
Alexander Garden of Charleston wrote that “The

Seneka is the most powerful and efficacious
antiphlogistic [fever- and inflammation-reducing
substance] attenuant among the Galenical medicines.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In North
American and European herbal medicine,

Seneca snakeroot is used as an expectorant to
treat bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, and
whooping cough. The root has a stimulant action
on the bronchial mucous membranes, promoting
the coughing up of phlegm from the chest. Seneca
snakeroot is also thought to encourage sweating
and to stimulate the secretion of saliva.

Related Species Yuan zhi (P tenuifolia), native
to China and Japan, has similar constituents. Yuan
zhi is taken to treat congestion in the chest and to
“calm the spirit and quieten the heart.” See also
milkwort (P. vulgaris, following entry).

Cautions Do not take if pregnant. Causes
diarrhea and vomiting in excessive doses.

Polygala vulgaris (Polygalaceae)

Milkwort

Description Short perennial with pointed
lance-shaped leaves and spikes of small blue,
mauve, or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Milkwort is common
in grassy and moorland areas in much of western
and northern Europe. It is gathered from the wild
when the plant is in flower in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Milkwort contains triterpenoid
saponins, a volatile oil, gaultherin, and mucilage.
History & Folklore Milkwort has been most
often used to treat chest problems such as pleurisy
and dry coughs. In larger doses, the plant acts as an
emetic. In his Irish Herbal (1735), K’Eogh states that
“it has a hot dry nature, and it encourages the
production of milk in nursing mothers.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses While milkwort
is infrequently used in European herbal medicine
today, it—like Seneca snakeroot (P. senega,
see preceding entry) —is a valuable herb for the
treatment of respiratory troubles such as chronic
bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and convulsive coughs,
including whooping cough. Milkwort is also thought
to have sweat-inducing and diuretic properties.

Polygonatum multiflorum
(Liliaceae)

Solomon’s Seal

Description Perennial growing to about 20 in
(50 cm). Has arching stems, alternate elliptical
leaves, delicate greenish-white, bell-shaped flowers,
and blue-black fruit.

POLYGONUM B I S TO RTA

Solomon’s seal is

mostly used for throat
and chest problems.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Europe and to
temperate regions of Asia and
North America, Solomon’s seal is
quite rare in the wild. However, it is a
common ornamental garden plant. The
rhizome is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Solomon’s seal contains steroidal
saponins (similar to diosgenin), flavonoids, and
vitamin A.

History & Folklore Solomon’s seal has been
used in Western herbal medicine since classical
times. In China, the herb’s first recorded use
stretches back to the Divine Husbandman’s Classic
(Shen’nong Bencaojing) of the I st century ce.

In North America, the species P. biflorum was
known to various native tribes. The Penobscot
used Solomon’s seal as part of a formula for
treating gonorrhea.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Like arnica
(Arnica montana, p. 172), Solomon’s seal is believed
to prevent excessive bruising and to stimulate
tissue repair. The rhizome, which is mainly used
in the form of a poultice, has astringent and
demulcent actions that undoubtedly contribute
to its ability to accelerate healing. Solomon’s seal
has also been recommended for tuberculosis, as
a remedy for menstrual problems, and as a tonic.

In Chinese herbal medicine, it is considered a yin
tonic, and is thought to be particularly applicable
to respiratory system problems—sore throats,
dry and irritable coughs, bronchial congestion, and
chest pain.

Related Species Angular or scented Solomon’s
seal (P. odoratum ) is used in much the same way as
P. multiflorum.

O Caution Do not take internally except under
professional advice. The aerial parts, especially
the berries, are harmful if eaten.

Description Annual creeper growing to 20 in
(50 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves and clusters of
small pink or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Knotgrass is found in
temperate regions throughout the world. It thrives
on wasteground and along shorelines. The plant is
gathered throughout the summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Knotgrass contains tannins,
flavonoids, polyphenols, silicic acid (about 1%),
and mucilage.

History & Folklore Knotgrass has been
used as a diuretic in Chinese herbal medicine
for over 2,000 years. In the Western tradition,
the I st-century ce physician Dioscorides
likewise considered knotgrass to be a diuretic,
as well as a remedy for heavy menstrual bleeding
and snake bite.

Medicinal Actions & Uses An herb with
astringent and diuretic properties, knotgrass is
used in European herbal medicine to treat many
conditions—diarrhea and hemorroids, to expel
worms, to staunch bleeding wounds, to reduce
heavy menstrual flow, and to stop nosebleeds.
Knotgrass is also taken for pulmonary complaints,
since its silicic acid content strengthens connective
tissue within the lungs. In Chinese medicine, it is
given to expel tapeworm and hookworm, to treat
diarrhea and dysentery, and as a diuretic,
particularly when urination is painful.

Research Chinese research indicates that the
plant is a useful medicine for bacillary dysentery.

Of 108 people with this disease treated with a
paste of knotgrass (taken internally), 104
recovered within 5 days. Results from Iranian
laboratory studies indicate that knotgrass
stimulates apoptosis (programmed cell death) and
might be of use in treating breast cancer.
Related Species See also bistort (P. bistorta,
following entry), and he shou wu
(P. multiflorum, p. 124).

Polygonum aviculare
(Polygonaceae)

Knotgrass,

Bian Xu (Chinese)

Polygonum bistorta
(Polygonaceae)

Bistort

Description Perennial growing to 12 in (30 cm).
Has long basal leaves, dense spikes of small pink
flowers, and dark nutlets.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,

Asia, and North America, bistort prefers damp
conditions. The leaves are gathered in spring, the
rhizome in autumn.

Parts Used Leaves, rhizome.

Constituents Bistort contains polyphenols
(including ellagic acid), tannins (15-20%),
phlobaphenes, flavonoids, and a trace of the
anthraquinone emodin.

History & Folklore Bistort rhizomes have
long been employed for their astringency. As the
rhizomes also contain large amounts of starch, they
have been steeped in water, roasted, and eaten as
a vegetable in Russia and North
America. In addition, the young,
tender leaves of bistort may
be used in salads or,
alternatively, cooked
in the same way as
spinach (Spinacia oleracea).

Medicinal Actions
& Uses One of the most
strongly astringent of all
herbs, bistort is used to
contract tissues and staunch
blood flow. It makes a valuable
mouthwash and gargle for
treating spongy gums, mouth
ulcers, and sore throats, and is
useful as a wash for small burns and
wounds, a douche for excessive

also

Rhizome

Bistort is one of the most
astringent of all medicinal plants.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

P 0 LY M N I A U V ED A LI A

vaginal discharge, and an ointment for hemorroids
and anal fissures. Internally, bistort may be taken to
treat peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis, and conditions
such as dysentery and irritable bowel that give rise
to diarrhea.

Related Species P. hydropiper, which is
native to Europe, may be used to relieve heavy
menstrual bleeding. See also knotgrass (P. aviculare,
preceding entry).

Caution Use bistort internally for no more than
3-4 weeks at a time.

Self-help Use Diarrhea, p. 307.

Polymnia uvedalia (Asteraceae)

Bearsfoot

Description Perennial herb growing to 614 ft
(2 m) with large 3-lobed leaves and yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Bearsfoot is native
to the eastern U.S. It grows from New York
southward, preferring rich soil. The root is
unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Root.

History & Folklore Bearsfoot root was used
by Native Americans as a stimulant and laxative
remedy. In the 19th century, it became a widely
popular healing herb in North America, having
a specific use as a treatment for mastitis
(inflammation of the breast tissue).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Bearsfoot is
perhaps best known for its use as a hair tonic,
having traditionally been a popular ingredient in
hair lotions. It is still used in this way, but today the
root is more often taken internally as a treatment
for nonmalignant swollen glands and especially for
mastitis. The root is thought to have a beneficial
effect on the stomach, liver, and spleen, and may
be taken to relieve indigestion and counteract
liver malfunction.

Polypodium vulgare (Polypodiaceae)

Polypody

Description Delicate perennial fern growing
to a height of I ft (30 cm). Has slender knotty
rhizomes and curving fronds that are dotted
with brown spores (sori) on their lower surface.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and northern Asia, polypody is commonly found
growing in damp woodland and hedgerows, and
on walls. The rhizome is unearthed in autumn.
Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Polypody rhizome contains
saponins (based on polypodosapogenin),
ecdysteroids, phloroglucins, volatile oil, fixed
254 oil, and tannins.

History & Folklore Polypody has been
used medicinally in Europe since ancient times.

Like mistletoe (Viscum album, p. 283), polypody
often grows on host trees, for example oak
(Quercus robur, p. 260). This was thought to impart
great medicinal value to the plant. The Greek
physician Dioscorides, writing in the I st century ce,
noted that polypody was used to purge phlegm
and was an ingredient of a plaster applied to
dislocated fingers and to sores that occur between
the fingers.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Polypody
stimulates bile secretion and has been used to
treat such conditions as hepatitis, jaundice, and
indigestion. A gentle laxative, polypody makes a
safe treatment for constipation in children. The
rhizome is also expectorant, having a supportive
and mildly stimulating effect on the respiratory
system. It may be taken for the relief of congestion,
bronchitis, pleurisy, and dry irritable coughs.
Caution Polypody may cause a skin rash when
applied externally.

Polypody is often seen growing in damp woodland in
Europe and northern Asia.

Pomaderris elliptica (Rhamnaceae)

Kumarhou

Description Branching tree growing to about
10 ft (3 m). Has shiny leaves and clusters of yellow-
white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Kumarhou is native
to New Zealand.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Kumarhou is a
traditional Maori remedy that has been used to
treat a wide range of illnesses. Its most common
use is as a remedy for problems of the respiratory
tract, such as asthma and bronchitis. However, it
has also been used in the treatment of indigestion
and heartburn, diabetes, and kidney problems.

Kumarhou is considered to be a detoxifier and
“blood cleansing” plant, and is used to treat skin
rashes and sores, including lesions produced by
skin cancer.

Populus x candicans syn.

P. x gileadensis (Salicaceae)

Balm of Gilead

Description Deciduous tree growing to 80 ft
(25 m). Has heart-shaped leaves, buds producing
a sticky resin, and female catkins.

Habitat & Cultivation Naturalized in northern
temperate regions, balm of Gilead is also cultivated
as an ornamental tree. The buds and bark from
young branches are collected in spring.

Parts Used Buds, stem bark.

Constituents Balm of Gilead buds contain
flavonoids, phenolic glycosides (including salicin),
and fatty acids. Salicin’s analgesic, anti-inflammatory,
and fever-reducing actions resemble those of aspirin.
Many poplars have a similar chemical profile and
are often used interchangeably as medicines.
History & Folklore Balm of Gilead has been
used for several thousand years to soothe inflamed
or irritated skin. The 17th-century herbalist
Nicholas Culpeper recorded that “The oyntment
called populeon, which is much of this poplar, is
singular for all heat and inflammation in any part of
the body and tempereth the heat of wounds: It is
much used to dry up the milk in women’s breasts.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Balm of Gilead
is a common ingredient of cough mixtures. Its
expectorant, antiseptic, and analgesic properties
make it an excellent remedy for sore throats, dry
irritable coughs, bronchitis, and other respiratory
ailments. In France and Germany, balm of Gilead
is applied as a salve to scrapes, small wounds,
chapped and itchy skin, sunburn, chilblains, and
hemorroids. A preparation of balm of Gilead,
applied externally, may also help relieve the pain
of rheumatic joints and strained muscles. As
Culpeper noted, the plant is also thought to reduce
breast-milk production.

Research Studies
have demonstrated
that balm of Gilead
buds have significant
expectorant,
antifungal, and anti¬
inflammatory properties
Research undertaken into
the bud resin of this and
other poplar species has been
prompted largely by the resin’s
chemical similarity to propolis, Balm of Gilead
a natural antibiotic resin that
is gathered by bees.

POTENTILLA A N S E R I N A

Cautions Best avoided while breastfeeding.
Do not take if allergic to aspirin.

Self-help Use Coughs, p. 3 10.

Populus tremuloides (Salicaceae)

Quaking Aspen

Description Deciduous, spreading tree
growing to 65 ft (20 m). Has oval, slightly sticky
buds and round, finely toothed leaves that quiver
in the wind.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North

properties. It is often taken to treat arthritic
and rheumatic aches and pains. It is also used
to lower fever, especially when this condition
is associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Being
stimulant, quaking aspen bark acts as a tonic
remedy in the treatment of anorexia and other
debilitated states. The bark’s significant astringent
and antiseptic qualities make it useful for treating
diarrhea and the symptoms of irritable bowel
syndrome. It is also used to treat urinary
tract infections.

Caution Do not take quaking aspen if allergic
to aspirin.

Quaking aspen bark contains salicin, a substance
with aspirin-like effects.

History & Folklore The Ojibwa people used
an oily compound made from quaking aspen and
bear fat to treat earache. Other Native Americans
used the bark for a variety of purposes, including
as an eyewash for sore eyes.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Like willow bark
(Solix alba, p. 129), quaking aspen bark has widely
recognized anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving

Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae)

Purslane

Description Succulent annual plant growing
to 6 in (15 cm). Has small, thick rounded leaves
and small yellow flowers growing in clusters.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and Asia, purslane is now one of the most
widely distributed plants, growing
from Australia and China to the
Americas. Often found growing
near water, it is gathered
throughout the summer. Wild
purslane is the variety chiefly used
as a medicine; the golden variety,

P. oleracea var. sativa, is cultivated
mostly as a kitchen potherb.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Purslane contains flavonoids,
alkaloids, fatty acids (significant omega-3 oil
content), terpenoids, polysaccharides, vitamins A,
B|, and C, proteins and minerals (especially calcium).
History & Folklore Purslane’s use as a
medicinal herb in Europe, Iran, and India dates
back at least 2,000 years, and it was probably
eaten as a vegetable well before then. In ancient
Rome, purslane was used to treat headaches,
stomach ache and dysentery, intestinal worms,
and lizard bite.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Purslane has
long been considered valuable in the treatment
of urinary and digestive problems. The diuretic
effect of the juice makes it useful in the alleviation
of bladder ailments, for example difficulty in
passing urine. The plant’s mucilaginous properties
also make it a soothing remedy for gastrointestinal
problems such as dysentery and diarrhea. In
Chinese herbal medicine, purslane is employed for
similar problems and, additionally, for appendicitis.
The Chinese also use the plant as an antidote for
wasp stings and snake bite. Used as an external
wash, the juice or a decoction relieves skin ailments
such as boils and carbuncles, and also helps to
reduce fever.

America, quaking aspen prefers damp and moist
areas, and grows alongside rivers and in valleys,
hedgerows, and groves. It is also widely cultivated
in temperate regions. The bark is collected in
early spring.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents The bark contains phenolic
glycosides (including salicin and populin) and
tannins. Salicin and populin are salicylates, substances
that have fever-reducing, pain-relieving, and
anti-inflammatory properties that are
similar to those of aspirin.

Research Purslane is being intensively researched.
Extracts of the herb show antioxidant, anti¬
inflammatory, analgesic, and antidiabetic activity,
underlining that fact that purslane is valuable as
food and as medicine. The alkaloids have
n euro protective activity and inhibit
acetylcholinesterase, making the herb
theoretically of use in Alzheimer’s disease.
Caution Do not take purslane as a medicine
during pregnancy.

Potentilla anserina (Rosaceae)

Silverweed

Description Perennial plant growing to
16 in (40 cm). Has toothed compound leaves
that are silvery on the underside, and 5-petaled
yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Silverweed is found
in Europe, Asia, and North America, where it
flourishes in dry grassy places. The aerial parts are
collected in late summer, the root at the same time
or in autumn.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Silverweed contains 2-10%
ellagitannins, flavonoids, choline, and bitters.
History & Folklore William Withering, the
18th-century doctor who discovered the
cardiotonic effects of foxglove (Digitalis purpurea,
p. 202), recommended a teaspoon of dried leaves
to be taken at 3-hour intervals to assuage bouts
of malarial fever.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Silverweed s
main medicinal value lies in its astringent and anti¬
inflammatory activity. It makes an effective gargle

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POTENTILLA ERECT A

for sore throats, and is a helpful remedy for
diarrhea. Less astringent than its close relative
tormentil (P. erecta, see following entry), it also has
a gentler action within the gastrointestinal tract.
It is used externally as a lotion or ointment for
bleeding hemorroids.

Caution Use internally for more no more than
3-4 weeks at a time.

Potentilla erecta syn. P. tormentil la
(Rosaceae)

Tormentil

Description Downy creeping perennial growing
to 4 in (10 cm). Has leaves bearing 5 leaflets, and
many 4-petaled yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to temperate
regions of Asia and Europe, tormentil thrives in
grassy sites and on heaths and moorland. The aerial
parts of tormentil are harvested in summer and
the root is gathered in autumn.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Tormentil contains 15-20%
tannins, catechins, ellagitannins, and a phlobaphene.
History & Folklore According to the
17th-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, the
herb “is most excellent to stay all kinds of fluxes
of blood or humours in man or woman, whether
it be at nose, mouth, belly, or any wound in the
veins or elsewhere.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Containing even
more tannins than oak bark (Quercus robur, p. 260),
all parts of tormentil are strongly astringent, finding
use whereverthis action is required. The plant
makes a beneficial gargle for throat infections, and
an effective mouthwash for treating mouth ulcers
and infected gums. Tormentil may be taken for
conditions that give rise to diarrhea, such as
irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, ulcerative colitis,
and dysentery, and for rectal bleeding. Applied
externally as a lotion or ointment, tormentil helps
relieve hemorroids (especially those that are
bleeding). In the form of a lotion, tormentil is used
to help staunch wounds and protect areas of
damaged or burned skin.

Caution Use internally for more no more than
3-4 weeks at a time.

Primula veris (Primulaceae)

Cowslip,

Primula

256

Description Hairy perennial growing to 4 in
(10 cm). Has a basal rosette of slightly rough
oblong leaves. Stems bear clusters of bright yellow,
bell-shaped flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Cowsl ip grows in
Europe and western Asia, preferring fields and
pastures with chalky soils. The flowers and leaves
are gathered in spring and summer, the root in
autumn. This increasingly rare plant should not
be picked from the wild.

Parts Used Flowers, leaves, root.
Constituents Cowslip contains triterpenoid
saponins, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, and a trace
of volatile oil. The flavonoids, mainly in the flowers,
are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic.
The triterpenoid saponins, which are concentrated
in the root (5-10%), are strongly expectorant.

and so easing the clearance of phlegm. It is given
for chronic coughs, especially those associated
with chronic bronchitis and mucus congestion.

The root is also thought to be mildly diuretic
and antirheumatic and to slow blood clotting.

The leaves have similar properties to the root,
but are weaker in action. The flowers are
believed to be sedative and are recommended
for overactivity and sleeplessness, particularly in
children. Cowslip flowers’ antispasmodic and anti¬
inflammatory properties make them potentially
useful in the treatment of asthma and other
allergic conditions.

Cautions Do not take cowslip during pregnancy,
if allergic to aspirin, or if taking anticoagulant
medication. Excessive doses can cause vomiting
and diarrhea.

Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae)

Self-Heal

History & Folklore This plant is so closely
associated with springtime that it is known as
primovero (spring) in Spanish and Italian. Cowslip
has long been reputed to preserve beauty. The
16th-century herbalist William Turner wrote:
“Some weomen ... sprinkle ye floures of cowslip
with whyte wine and after ... wash their faces with
that water to... make them fayre in the eyes of the
worlde ratherthan in the eyes of God, whom they
are not afryd to offend.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Cowslip is an
underused but valuable plant. The root is strongly
expectorant, stimulating a more liquid mucus

Description Creeping perennial, growing to
20 in (50 cm) tall, with pointed oval leaves and
violet-blue or pink flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and Asia, self-heal can be found in temperate
regions worldwide. It is a wayside plant, growing
in meadows and by roadsides, and thrives in sunny
areas. Rarely cultivated, self-heal can easily be grown
from seed or by root division. The aerial parts are
picked in summer when in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Self-heal contains
entacyclic triterpenes, tannins, caffeic
and rosmarinic acids, and vitamins B |(
f C, and K.

u; History & Folklore As its name indicates,

’ self-heal has been used for centuries to staunch
bleeding and heal wounds. The 17th-century
herbalist John Gerard wrote: “there is not a
better wounde herbe in the world than that of
selfe-heale.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Self-heal is
an undervalued astringent and wound-healer with
tonic activity. In common with other members
of the mint family, such as rosemary (Rosmarinus
offcinalis, p. 128) and sage (Salvia spp., p. 13 I), it
has powerful antioxidant and tissue-protective
activity—making it potentially of value in many
chronic illnesses. Its antioxidant and astringent
activity makes it beneficial in conditions such as
sore throat, inflammatory bowel disease, and
diarrhea, and to heal internal bleeding. Externally, a
lotion can be applied to treat leukorrhea (vaginal
discharge). In Chinese medicine, self-heal
is taken with ju hua (Chrysanthemum x morifolium,
p. 78) for fevers, headaches, dizziness, and vertigo,
and is thought to cool “liver fire.”

P R U N U S S £ ROT I N A

Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae)

Apricot

Description Sturdy deciduous tree growing
to 33 ft (10 m). Has finely serrated oval leaves,
clusters of white (or, rarely, pink) 5-petaled
flowers, and lightly freckled pale yellow to
deep purple fruits.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China and
Japan, apricot is now cultivated in Asia, North
Africa, and California. The fruit is collected when
ripe in late summer.

Apricot seeds yield laetrile,
which has been
used as a controversial
treatment for cancer.

Parts Used Fruit, seeds, bark.

Constituents Apricot fruit contains fruit
sugars, vitamins, and iron. The seeds contain up
to 8% amygdalin, the cyanogenic glycoside that
yields laetrile and hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. The
bark contains tannins.

History & Folklore In India and China, the
apricot has been appreciated for well over 2,000
years. Dong Feng, a physician who practiced at the
end of the 2nd century ce, is said to have asked for
his payment in apricot trees.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Apricot fruit
is nutritious, cleansing, and mildly laxative. A
decoction of the astringent bark soothes
inflamed and irritated skin conditions. Though
the seeds contain highly toxic prussic acid, they
are prescribed in small amounts in the Chinese
tradition as a treatment for coughs, asthma, and
wheezing, and for excessive mucus production
and constipation. An extract from the seeds,
laetrile, has been used in Western medicine as a
controversial (and illegal in the U.S.) treatment for
cancer. The seeds also yield a fixed oil, similar to
almond oil (from P. amygdalus), that is often used
in the formulation of cosmetics.

Research Chinese trials show that apricot seed
paste helps combat vaginal infection.

Caution Apricot seeds are highly toxic in
all but the smallest amounts and should not
be consumed.

Prunus avium & P. cerasus
(Rosaceae)

Sweet Cherry,

& Tart Cherry

Description Deciduous shrub or tree growing
to 26 ft (8 m). It has reddish-brown bark, oval to
elliptical leaves, clusters of 2-6 white flowers, and
almost spherical red fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
southwestern Asia, cherry is naturalized in Europe
and cultivated in temperate regions around the
world. The stems and ripe fruit are collected
in summer.

Parts Used Stems, fruit.

Constituents Cherry stems contain phenols,
including salicylic acid, and tannins. Cherry fruit
contains anthocyanins and flavonoids, including
quercetin, carotenoids, sugars, fruit acids, vitamin
C, and melatonin.

History & Folklore The 16th-century herbalist
John Gerard recorded the French custom of
hanging cherries in houses to ward off fever.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In European
herbal medicine, cherries and cherry stems have
long been used for their diuretic and astringent
properties. They have been prescribed for cystitis,
nephritis, and urinary retention, and for arthritic
problems, notably gout. Cherries and cherryjuice
can be useful in treating gout and arthritic
problems. Their fruit sugar content makes them
mildly laxative.

Sweet cherry fruit and stems have been harvested for
medicinal use since classical times.

Research In a 2012 American-Australian clinical
study involving 633 people with gout, the risk of an
acute gout attack was reduced by 35% for those
taking cherry extract. One laboratory study

concluded that the anti-inflammatory activities of
anthocyanins within cherry fruit are comparable
to those of ibuprofen.

Caution The seeds are toxic and should not
be consumed.

Prunus mume (Rosaceae)

Asian Plum,

Wu Mei (Chinese)

Description Deciduous tree growing to 33 ft
(10 m). Has pointed oval to elliptical leaves, white
flowers, and yellow fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,
Asian plum grows wild and is planted in the
southern and eastern provinces. The fruit is picked
in late spring.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Asian plum contains fruit acids
and sugars, vitamin C, and plant sterols.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The sour-tasting
astringent Asian plum is used in Chinese medicine
to counter diarrhea and dysentery, to stop bleeding,
and to ease coughs. It may also be effective in
expelling hookworms. Externally, a plaster of the
fruit is applied to the sites of removed corns and
warts to hasten healing.

Research Laboratory research undertaken in
China indicates that the fruit of Asian plum has
antibiotic properties.

Prunus serotina (Rosaceae)

Wild Cherry

Description Deciduous tree growing to 100 ft
(30 m). Has elliptical to oblong leaves, white
flowers, and purple-black fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, wild cherry grows throughout much
of the U.S. It is cultivated in central Europe for its
timber. The bark is collected in late summer and
early autumn.

Part Used Inner bark.

Constituents Wild cherry contains prunasin
(a cyanogenic glycoside that yields hydrocyanic
acid), benzaldehyde, eudesmic acid, coumarins,
and tannins. Prunasin reduces the cough reflex.
History & Folklore Cherokee women
traditionally took wild cherry bark to ease labor
pain. Other Native Americans used it in the
treatment of coughs and colds, hemorroids, and
diarrhea. European settlers learned of the bark’s
medicinal properties, and in the 19th century it
became a widely used remedy.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Figuring in
official pharmacopoeias and much used in the
Anglo-American tradition, wild cherry bark is an

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

PSORALEA CO RY LI F 0 LI A

effective remedy for chronic dry and irritable
coughs. It combines well with coltsfoot (Tussilago
farfara, p. 278) as a treatment for asthma and
whooping cough. The astringent bark also helps
treat indigestion and the symptoms of irritable
bowel syndrome, especially when these conditions
are of nervous origin.

Caution Wild cherry bark is highly toxic in
excessive doses.

alopecia (loss of hair), and vitiligo (loss of skin
pigmentation). In Vietnam, a tincture of the seeds
is used in the treatment of rheumatism.

Research Studies in China indicate that this
herb is of value in the treatment of skin disorders,
including vitiligo.

Caution Applied externally, this herb may sensitize
the skin, resulting in an allergic reaction to sunlight.

Psoralea corylifolia (Fabaceae)

Bu Gu Zhi

Description Perennial growing to 3 ft (90cm).
Has oval leaves, yellow clover-like flowers, and
black seed pods containing yellow-black seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Bu gu zhi is native to
southern and southeastern Asia and cultivated in
China. The fruit is gathered when ripe in autumn.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents The seeds contain a volatile oil,
flavonoids, a flavone, and furanocoumarins.
History & Folklore In the Chinese tradition,
bu gu zhi has long been considered a tonic remedy.
It was first documented in Grandfather Lei’s
Discussion of Herb Preparations, which was written
in about 490 ce.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Valued as a yang
tonic, bu gu zhi is taken in China to treat impotence
and premature ejaculation and to improve vitality.
The seeds are also used to counter debility and
other problems reflecting “kidney yang deficiency,”
such as lower back pain, frequent urination,
incontinence, and bed-wetting. Bu gu zhi is used
externally to treat skin conditions such as psoriasis,

Ptychopetalum olacoides
syn. P. uncinatum (Oleaceae)

Muira Puama

Description Tree growing to 49 ft (15 m) with
a gray trunk, dark brown leaves, white flowers,
and orange-yellow fruits.

Habitat & Cultivation Muira puama is
native to Brazilian rainforests, especially the
Rio Negro and Amazonas regions.

Part Used Root, bark, wood.

Constituents Muira puama contains esters
and plant sterols.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Muira puama
has long been used in Amazonian medicine as
atonic and aphrodisiac. Considered useful as an
aid for impotence, it is thought to help with both
physical and psychological aspects of the problem.

Wild cherry bears long spikes of white flowers,
followed by fleshy, blue-black fruit.

Pterocarpus marsupium (Fabaceae)

Kino

Description Handsome deciduous tree growing
to 52 ft (16 m). Has leaves with 5-7 oval leathery
leaflets, and numerous small yellow
or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia
and the Philippines, kino grows in
tropical rainforests. The tree is
cultivated for its timber and for the
sap (“kino”) that exudes from cuts made
in the trunk. The sap is collected year round.
Part Used Sap.

Constituents Kino contains tannins, flavonoids,
and marsupsin.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Kino is a
strongly astringent herb that tightens the mucous
membranes of the gastrointestinal tract. Kino
relieves chronic diarrhea and the irritation caused
by intestinal infection and colitis. Though its taste is
unpleasant, this herb makes a good mouthwash
and gargle. It is widely used in Asia as a douche for
excessive vaginal discharge.

Research Clinical trials have found that the herb
is therapeutically useful in treating the early stages
of non-insulin-dependent diabetes.

It is also used to treat or prevent baldness.
The bark is strongly astringent and is employed
as a gargle for sore throats and taken in the
form of an infusion in orderto treat diarrhea
and dysentery.

Related Species Lirisoma ovata, another
Brazilian tree, is also known as muira puama,
but has quite distinct chemical constituents.

Pueraria lobata

syn. P. thunbergiana (Fabaceae)

Kudzu,

Ge Gen (Chinese)

Description Deciduous climber growing to
100 ft (30 m). Has leaves with 3 broadly oval
leaflets, curling tendrils, and spikes of pea-type
purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,
Japan, and eastern Asia, kudzu is naturalized in
the U.S. It is cultivated in the central and eastern
provinces of China. The root is unearthed in
spring or autumn.

Kudzu is used in China to treat alcoholism and is an
ingredient in a remedy for hangovers.

Parts Used Root, flower.

Constituents Kudzu contains triterpenoid
saponins, isoflavones, and phytosterols. The
isoflavones are estrogenic.

History & Folklore From the 6th century bce
onward, Chinese herbalists have considered kudzu
to be a remedy for muscular pain and
a treatment for measles. Zhang Zhongjing
(150-c. 219 ce) recommended kudzu if the
patient “has a stiff back and muscles, does not
breathe easily, and is susceptible to wind.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In China, kudzu
is frequently used as a remedy for measles, often
in combination with shengma (Cimicifuga foetida).

P U N I CA GRA NATUM

Kudzu is also given for muscle aches and pains,
especially when they are linked with fever or are
affecting the neck and upper back. The root may be
taken to treat symptoms of headache, dizziness, or
numbness caused by high blood pressure. Kudzu also
treats diarrhea and dysentery. Kudzu flowers are
traditionally taken to treat alcohol intoxication and
hangovers, and are thought to increase the rate of
clearance of alcohol from the body, aiding recovery
from intoxication. Kudzu root, however, is thought
to act in a more or less opposite way—it slows the
liver’s ability to break down (and clear) alcohol from
the system. Kudzu root may therefore increase the
risks associated with alcohol consumption, and
should not be taken as a “hangover cure.”
Research Chinese studies indicate that kudzu
increases cerebral blood flow in patients with
arteriosclerosis, and eases neck pain and stiffness.
U.S. research indicates that kudzu may suppress
the desire for alcohol.

Related Species The closely related P. mirifica
and P. tuberosa have been investigated for their
contraceptive effect.

Pulmonaria officinalis
(Boraginaceae)

Lungwort

Description Perennial growing to I ft (30 cm).
Has broad oval basal leaves, smaller upper leaves
mottled with white spots, and clusters of
pink-purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Lungwort is native to
Europe and the Caucasus. It flourishes in mountain
pastures and in damp sites. The leaves are gathered
in late spring.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Lungwort contains allantoin,
flavonoids, tannins, mucilage, and saponins.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids occur in the roots, but in
negligible quantities in the leaves.

Lungwort’s speckled leaves were once considered a sign of
its ability to cure lung problems.

History & Folklore According to the
medieval Doctrine of Signatures, which held
that a plant’s appearance pointed to the ailment
it treated, lungwort was effective for chest
ailments because its leaves were said to resemble
lung tissue.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Given its high
mucilage content, lungwort is indeed a useful
remedy for chest conditions, and it is particularly
beneficial in cases of chronic bronchitis. It combines
well with herbs such as coltsfoot ( Tussilago farfara,
p. 278) as a treatment for chronic coughs (including
whooping cough), and it can be taken for asthma.
Lungwort can also be used as a treatment for
sore throats and congestion. In the past, lungwort
was given for the coughing up of blood arising
from tubercular infection. Lungwort leaves are
astringent, and have been applied externally to
stop bleeding.

Caution Lungwort is subject to legal restrictions
in some countries.

Punica granatum (Lythraceae)

Pomegranate

Description Deciduous shrub or tree growing
to 20 ft (6 m). Has branches tipped with spines,
whorls of lance-shaped leaves, scarlet flowers, and
leathery-rinded round fruit containing many pulp-
covered seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
southwestern Asia, pomegranate has become
naturalized in Europe. The tree is widely cultivated
for its fruit, which is gathered in autumn when it is
ripe. The bark is also gathered in autumn.

Parts Used Juice, fruit pulp, rind, bark.
Constituents The fruit and juice contain
pelletierene alkaloids, elligatannins (up to 25%),
and triterpenoids. The alkaloids are highly toxic.

Pulsatilla chinensis
(Ranunculaceae)

Chinese Anemone,

Bai Tou Weng (Chinese)

Description Perennial herb growing to
10 in (25 cm). Has erect downy stems,
compound leaves, bell-shaped flowers,
and feathery seedheads.

Habitat & Cultivation Chinese anemone
is native to eastern Asia, and is found in Mongolia,
China, and Japan. The root is unearthed either
before the plant comes into flower in spring,
or in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Chinese anemone contains
lactones (including protoanemonin and anemonin),
pulsatoside, and anemonol.

History & Folklore Chinese anemone root
was first documented in Chinese medicine in the
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen'nong Bencaojing),
a herbal written in the I st century ce.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Chinese
anemone is thought to clear toxicity and to lower
fever. It is most commonly taken as a decoction
to counter infection within the gastrointestinal
tract. The root is also used to treat malarial fever
and vaginal infections.

Research Chinese studies have shown the root
to be potentially valuable as a treatment for
amoebic dysentery.

Related Species See pasque flower (Anemone
pulsatilla, p. 168).

Caution Take Chinese anemone only under
professional supervision.

History & Folklore In 1500 bce, the pharaoh
Tuthmosis reputedly brought back pomegranate to
Egypt from Asia. Prized as a fruit, it was also sought
after as a remedy for worms. The Greek physician
Dioscorides, in the I st century ce, knew of the
herb’s ability to expel worms, but this attribute was
subsequently forgotten in Europe for nearly 1,800
years. In the early 19th century, after an Indian
herbalist used pomegranate to cure an Englishman
of tapeworms, English doctors in India became
interested in pomegranate and its medicinal
properties were investigated.

Pomegranate’s leathery
fruit and jewel-toned
seeds feature in ancient
Greek mythology.

Pomegranate

fruit

259

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

PYGEUM A F R I C A N U M

Medicinal Actions & Uses Until recently,
the chief medicinal value of pomegranate was
as a deworming agent, with the rind and bark being
considered specific remedies for tapeworm
infestation. Now, pomegranate juice is widely
available and known for its positive effects on the
heart and circulation. Like other medicinal plants
with a high anthocyanidin content, pomegranate
fruit and juice have potent protective activity on
all aspects of the circulation, supporting healthy
circulation and countering local inflammatory
activity, which damages the inner lining of the
blood vessels. The juice is commonly taken to
help with cardiovascular problems, including
high blood pressure, capillary fragility, angina,
and congestive heart failure. It also appears
to help prevent dental plaque.

Research In recent years, there has been
significant interest in the medicinal properties
of pomegranate fruit and juice. As above,
pomegranate has a strongly beneficial activity
on the cardiovascular system, but it also appears
to have an unusually wide range of potential
therapeutic properties, including antibacterial,
antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and estrogenic
activity. James A. Duke, a former USDA
botanist, has described it as an “antimenopausal
fruit.” Pomegranate shows signs of having
anticancer activity and has been recommended
as a preventative and treatment for prostate
cancer. New potential uses are likely to emerge
overtime.

Cautions Do not use the rind or bark unless
under professional supervision. This plant, and
especially its bark extracts, is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Pygeum africanum (Boraginaceae)

Pygeum

Description Evergreen tree growing to
I 15 ft (35 m). Has oblong leaves, white flowers,
and red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Pygeum is native
to Africa. It is still harvested from the wild, but
severe shortages have led to the establishment
of plantations.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Pygeum contains phytosterols
(beta-sitosterol), triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic
acids), long-chain alcohols (n-tetracosanol), as well
as tannins.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In conventional
medicine in France, the fat-soluble extract of
pygeum bark has become the primary treatment
for an enlarged prostate gland. A decoction of the
bark may reduce the severity of chronic prostate
260 inflammation, and it may also help reverse male

sterility when this is due to insufficient prostate
secretions. In combination with other plants,
pygeum may be valuable in the treatment of
prostate cancer.

Research Trials carried out since the 1960s,
many of them in France, have established that
pygeum extract has positive effects on the
prostate gland. Specifically, the extract increases
glandular secretions and reduces levels of
cholesterol within the organ. In some Western
countries, surgery is the main option for enlarged
prostates, but in France pygeum is prescribed in
8 I % of cases.

Related Species The fruit kernels of the
Asian P. gardneri are used to poison fish.

O Caution Only take pygeum under
professional supervision.

Quercus robur (Fagaceae)

English Oak

Description Slow-growing, long-lived
deciduous tree reaching 150 ft (45 m). Has
deeply lobed leaves, long catkins, and green to
brown fruit (acorns).

Habitat & Cultivation English oak
grows throughout the northern hemisphere, in
woods and forests, and along roadsides. The bark
is collected in spring and the fruit is harvested
in autumn.

Parts Used Bark, galls (growths produced by
insects or fungi).

Constituents English oak bark contains
15-20% tannins (including phlobatannin,
ellagitannins, and gallic acid). Oak galls contain
about 50% tannins.

History & Folklore Sacred to the Druids, the
oak tree has been esteemed in European herbal
medicine for its astringent bark, leaves, and acorns.
Medicinal Actions & Uses English oak bark,
prepared as a decoction, is
often used as a gargle
to treat sore throats
and tonsillitis. It may
also be applied as a
wash, lotion, or
ointment to treat
conditions such as
hemorroids, anal fissures, small
burns, or other skin problems. Less commonly,
a decoction of the bark is taken in
small doses to treat diarrhea, dysentery, and
rectal bleeding. Powdered oak bark may be sniffed
to treat nasal polyps, or sprinkled on eczema to
dry the affected area.

Caution Do not take oak bark internally for
more than 4 weeks at a time.

Self-help Use Hemorroids, p. 302.

Oak bark

Quillaja saponaria (Rosaceae)

Soap Bark

Description Evergreen tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m). Has glossy oval leaves, white flowers, and
star-shaped fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Soap bark is native to
Chile and Peru, and is cultivated in California and
India. The bark is gathered throughout the year.
Part Used Inner bark.

Constituents Soap bark contains up to 10%
triterpenoid saponins, calcium oxalate, and tannins.
The saponins are strongly expectorant and can
cause inflammation of the digestive tract.

History & Folklore In Peru and Chile, soap
bark has traditionally been used by Andean peoples
as an alternative to soap. The bark has been used
medicinally as an expectorant remedy.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Soap bark has
a long tradition of use as a treatment for chest
problems. Its strong expectorant effect is beneficial
in the treatment of bronchitis, especially in the
early stages of the illness. Like other medicinal
plants that contain saponins, soap bark stimulates
the production of a more fluid mucus in the
airways, facilitating the clearing of phlegm through
coughing. Soap bark is useful for treating any
condition featuring congested mucus within the
chest, but it should not be used for dry irritable
coughs. Soap bark is also used externally, appearing
in the formulations of dandruff shampoos.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. As soap bark is irritant to the digestive
tract, internal use must be carefully monitored.

Ranunculus ficaria
(Ranunculaceae)

Lesser Celandine,

Pilewort

Description Mat-forming perennial growing to
6 in (15 cm). Has small tubers, fleshy heart-shaped
leaves, and shiny-petaled, brilliant yellow flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Lesser celandine is
native to western Asia, North Africa, and Europe.
Commonly found in woods, roadsides, and bare
open spaces, it is collected when in flower in spring.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Lesser celandine contains
saponins, protoanemonin and anemonin, tannins,
and vitamin C.

History & Folklore Lesser celandine has
been used from the earliest times as a medicine
for the relief of hemorroids and ulcers. In
medieval times it was believed that simply carrying
lesser celandine on one’s person was sufficient to
cure hemorroids.

RHA/VINUS F R A N G U L A

Habitat & Cultivation Radish is believed to
be native to southern Asia. Cultivated varieties are
grown around the world both as vegetables and
for medicinal use. The root is unearthed in autumn.
Part Used Root.

Constituents Radish contains
glucosilinates, which yield a volatile
oil, raphanin, phenolic compounds,
and vitamin C. Raphanin is antibiotic;
the phenolic compounds are
antioxidant. The leaves are a highly
nutritious and underused food.
History & Folklore Herodotus
(c. 485-c. 425 bce) wrote that the builders of the
pyramids in ancient Egypt were paid in radishes,
onions, and garlic. In Egypt, the plant was used as a
vegetable and a medicine. In ancient Rome, radish
oil was applied to treat skin diseases. In China,
radish was listed in the Tang Materia Medina
(659 ce) as a digestive stimulant.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Radish stimulates
the appetite and digestion. The common red
radish is eaten as a salad vegetable and an
appetizer. The juice of the black radish is drunk to
counter gassy indigestion and constipation. Black
radish juice has atonic and laxative action on the
intestines, and indirectly stimulates the flow of bile.
Consuming radish generally results in improved
digestion, but some people are sensitive to its
acridity and robust action. In China, radish is eaten
to relieve abdominal distension. The root is also
prepared “dry-fried” to treat chest problems.
Caution Avoid if gallstones are present.

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Lesser celandine is

used fresh in ointments
and suppositories to
treat hemorroids.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Lesser celandine
makes a useful ointment or suppository for treating
hemorroids.

Related Species Various other Ranunculus
species have been used in herbal medicine, even
though all are toxic and irritant to a greater or
lesser degree. In North America, the Meskawi
people used the flowers and stigma of the yellow
water crowfoot (R. delphinifolius ) as a snuff to
provoke sneezing, and mixed it with other herbs
to treat respiratory conditions such as mucus
and nasal congestion.

©Caution Do not take lesser celandine orally.

Self-help Use Hemorroids, p. 302.

Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae)

Radish

Description Bristly annual growing to about
3 ft (I m). Has a swollen taproot, deeply cut
compound leaves, pale violet to lilac flowers, and
cylindrical seed pods.

Radish has been used since the 7th century
to aid digestion.

Indian Snake root,

Sarpagandha (Hindi)

Description Evergreen shrub growing to
3 ft (I m). Has whorls of elliptical leaves, tiny pink
and white tubular flowers, and glossy red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Indian snakeroot is
native to much of southern and southeastern
Asia, including India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. It is
widely cultivated for medicinal use, notably in India
and the Philippines. The root of plants at least
18 months old is unearthed in late winter.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Indian snakeroot contains a
complex mixture of indole alkaloids, including
reserpine, rescinnamine, ajmaline, and yohimbine.
Ajmaline has been used to regulate heartbeat.
History & Folklore Indian snakeroot is listed
in the Charaka Samhita, the earliest Ayurvedic
medical text (c. 400 bce). The plant has been used
since at least that time to treat mental illness and
insomnia. Indian snakeroot’s status as a healing plant
was first recorded in Europe in 1785, but it was not

until 1946 that conventional Western medicine
recognized the herb’s efficacy. After that date, the
whole plant, and its reserpine extract in particular,
were widely used in conventional medicine to lower
high blood pressure and lessen the symptoms of
mental illness.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Indian snakeroot
is useful in the treatment of high blood pressure
and anxiety. The root has a pronounced sedative and
depressant effect on the sympathetic nervous
system. By reducing the system’s activity, the herb
brings about the lowering of blood pressure. It may
also be used to treat anxiety and insomnia, as well
as more serious mental health problems such as
psychosis. Indian snakeroot is a slow-acting remedy
and it takes some time for its effect to become
fully established.

Research As indicated above, Indian snakeroot
and its alkaloids have been extensively researched
since the 1930s. Despite concerns raised in the
medical journal The Lancet in 1974, there is little
evidence to show that the root has serious side-
effects at normal dosage.

Related Species The West African species
R. vomitoria is used as a sedative, aphrodisiac, and
anticonvulsant in traditional African medicine.

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Indian snakeroot is subject to legal
restrictions in some countries.

Rhamnus frangula

syn. Frangula alnus (Rhamnaceae)

Alder Buckthorn

Description Deciduous shrub or small tree
growing to 16 ft (5 m). Has smooth brown bark,
oval to elliptical leaves, white flowers in late spring,
and small round berries ripening from yellow to black.

Habitat & Cultivation Alder buckthorn grows
in Europe (except for the Mediterranean region and
the extreme north), and in northeastern parts
of the U.S. It prefers marshy woodland. The bark of
trees at least 3-4 years old is collected in late spring
and early summer, and is dried and stored for at
least I year before use.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Alder buckthorn contains 3-7%
anthraquinones (including frangulin and emodin),
anthrones, anthranols, an alkaloid (armepavine),
tannins and flavonoids. The anthrones and anthranols
induce vomiting, but the severity of their effect
lessens after long-term storage. The anthraquinones
found in alder buckthorn and closely related species
act on the wall of the colon, stimulating a bowel
movement approximately 8-12 hours after ingestion.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Alder buckthorn
is a laxative and a cathartic, and is most commonly
taken as a treatment for chronic constipation.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

RHUS GLABRA

Once dried and stored, it is significantly milder than
senna (Cassia senna, p. 75) or common buckthorn
(R. catharticus ) and may be safely used over the
long term to treat constipation and to encourage
the return of regular bowel movements. Alder
buckthorn is a particularly beneficial remedy if
the muscles of the colon are weak, and if there is
poor bile flow. The plant should not be used for
constipation caused by excessive tension in the
colon wall.

Alder buckthorn bark is toxic when fresh but is safe to use
once dried and stored for a year

Related Species Cascara sagrada (R. purshiana),
native to woodlands along the Pacific coast of
North America, is used medicinally in much the
same way as alder buckthorn. Common buckthorn
(R. cartharticus), a European native, is today used
mainly in veterinary medicine.

Cautions Use only dried bark that has been
stored for at least a year, as the fresh bark is violently
purgative. The berries may also be harmful if eaten.

Rhus glabra (Anacardiaceae)

Smooth Sumac

Description Deciduous shrub growing to a
height of about 614 ft (2 m). Has straggling branches,
compound leaves in pairs, large clusters of
greenish-red flowers, and downy deep red berries.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, smooth sumac is found on the
borders of woods, along fences and roadsides, and
in neglected sites. The root bark is collected
in autumn, the berries when ripe in late summer.
Parts Used Root bark, berries.

Constituents Smooth sumac contains tannins.
Its other constituents are unknown.

History & Folklore Indigenous peoples across
North America used smooth sumac and closely
related species to treat hemorroids, rectal
bleeding, dysentery, venereal disease, and bleeding
after childbirth. John Josselyn, a 17th-century New
262 England naturalist, observed: “the English use to

boyl [the plant] in beer, and drink it for colds;
and so do the Indians, from whom the English
had the medicine.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent
root bark of smooth sumac is often used as a
decoction. It is taken to alleviate diarrhea and
dysentery, applied externally to treat excessive
vaginal discharge and skin eruptions, and used
as a gargle for sore throats. The berries are
diuretic, help reduce fever, and may be of use in
type 2 diabetes. The berries are also astringent
and can be used as a gargle for both mouth and
throat complaints.

Related Species Sweet sumac (R. aromatica)
has a similar range of uses. Poison ivy
(R. toxicodendron ) was formerly used in herbal
medicine as a treatment for rheumatism, paralysis,
and certain skin disorders. It is itself highly irritant
to the skin, and causes severe dermatitis.

Ribes nigrum (Grossulariaceae)

Blackcurrant

Description Erect deciduous shrub growing
to 5 ft (1.5 m). Has serrated, palm-shaped lobed
leaves, small greenish-white flowers, and clusters
of black berries.

Blackcurrant fruit is harvested in summer. The juice
is extremely rich in vitamin C.

Habitat & Cultivation Blackcurrant is native
to the temperate regions of Europe, western and
central Asia, and the Himalayas. It is grown mainly
in eastern Europe for its sour-sweet fruit. The
leaves are gathered in early summer, the berries
when ripe in mid to late summer.

Parts Used Leaves, berries.

Constituents Blackcurrant leaves contain
flavonoids, tannins, proanthocyanidins,
prodelphinidins, and a volatile oil. The berries
contain flavonoids, flavonols, proanthocyanidins and
sugars (10-15%). The seeds contain the essential
fatty acids linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, and up
to 1 8% gamma-linolenic acid and 9% stearidonic

acid. (However, most blackcurrant oil available on
the market has been refined and will not contain
these oils.) The proanthocyanidins, especially in
the fruit, are strongly antioxidant and anti¬
inflammatory, and like bilberry (Vaccinium myrtilis,
p. 147) exert a protective activity on the capillaries.
The prodelphinidins are anti-inflammatory.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Europe,
blackcurrant leaves are used for their diuretic
effect. By encouraging the elimination of fluid, the
leaves help to reduce blood volume and thereby to
lower blood pressure. The leaves are also used as a
gargle for sore throats and mouth ulcers. According
to French investigators, blackcurrant leaves increase
the secretion of cortisol by the adrenal glands, and
thus stimulate the activity of the sympathetic nervous
system. This action may prove useful in the
treatment of stress-related conditions. Blackcurrant
berries and their juice are high in vitamin C. They
help improve resistance to infection and make a
valuable remedy for treating colds and flu. According
to the herbal authority R. E Weiss, the juice is “as
good as, if not better than, lemon juice (Citrus
limonj for patients with pneumonia, influenza, etc.”
The juice also helps to stem diarrhea and calms
indigestion. Juice that is fresh or vacuum-sealed is
more effective than concentrate.

Ricinus communis
(Euphorbiaceae)

Castor Oil Plant

Description Evergreen shrub growing to

about 33 ft (10 m) in its natural state, but a
much smaller annual when cultivated. Has large,
palm-shaped leaves, green female flowers, and
prickly red seed capsules.

Castor oil plant is widely
cultivated for its seed
oil, which is used
medicinally, in cosmetics,
and as a lubricant.

R U B I A TINCTORUM

Habitat & Cultivation Castor oil plant is
probably native to eastern Africa. It is cultivated in
hot climates around the world. The seed capsules
are gathered throughout the year when nearly ripe
and are then put out in the sun to mature.

Parts Used Seed oil, seeds.

Constituents The seeds contain 45-55% fixed
oil, which consists mainly of glycerides of ricinoleic
acid, ricin (a highly toxic protein), ricinine (an
alkaloid), and lectins. The seeds are highly
poisonous—2 are sufficient to kill an adult—but the
toxins do not pass into the expressed oil.

History & Folklore Castor oil has been used
medicinally for about 4,000 years. Until recently, it
was a common remedy given regularly to children
“to help keep the system clear.” Owing to its
unpleasant taste, castor oil is remembered
as the bane of many childhoods.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Castor oil
is well known for its strongly laxative
(and, in higher doses, purgative) action,
prompting a bowel movement about
3-5 hours after ingestion. The
oil is so effective that it is
regularly used to clear the
digestive tract in cases of
poisoning. Castor oil is well
tolerated by the skin, and it is
sometimes used as a vehicle for medicinal
and cosmetic preparations. In India, the oil is
massaged into the breasts after childbirth to
stimulate milk flow. Indian herbalism uses a poultice
of castor oil seeds to relieve swollen and tender
joints. In China, the crushed seeds are used to
treat facial palsy.

© Cautions Do not ingest the seeds, which are
extremely poisonous. Do not take castor oil during
pregnancy, and do not take more often than once
every few weeks as a treatment for constipation.

The plants were not esteemed to the same degree
as were cultivated roses (R. gallica, following entry),
but dog rose was valued as the source of a widely
used folk remedy for chest problems.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Dog rose hips
have extremely high levels of vitamins. When
consumed fresh, they provide vitamins and other
nutrients in a form that is readily absorbed by the
body. This makes rose-hip syrup a nourishing drink
for young children. The tannin content of rose hips
makes them a gentle remedy for diarrhea. The hips
are mildly diuretic.

Dog rose hips are an
excellent source of
readily absorbed vitamins.

Rosa canina (Rosaceae)

Dog Rose

Description Climbing perennial growing to a
height of 10 ft (3 m). Has curved thorns, leaves
with 2-3 pairs of toothed leaflets, pink or white
flowers, and scarlet fruit (called “hips”).

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
temperate areas of Asia, and North Africa, dog
rose grows in hedgerows and thickets and in open
areas. The fruit is picked in autumn.

Part Used Hips.

Constituents Dog rose hips contain vitamins C
(up to 1.25%), A, B h B 2 , B 3 , and K, flavonoids,
tannins (2-3%), invert sugar, pectin, plant acids,
polyphenols, carotenoids, volatile oil, and vanillin.
History & Folklore The hips of the dog rose
were a popular sweetmeat in the Middle Ages.

Research Clinical studies investigating the use
of rose-hip extracts for osteoarthritis, rheumatoid
arthritis, and lower back pain have produced mixed
results. Some have shown positive benefits, others
none. It is likely that some people will benefit more
than others, and given that rose-hip extracts are
very safe, rose hips and rose-hip extract are well
worth trying for arthritic conditions.

Rosa gallica (Rosaceae)

Rose

Description Deciduous shrub growing to about
5 ft (1.5 m). Has a smooth stem, sharp thorns,
serrated leaves with 2-3 pairs of leaflets, semi¬
double deep pink or red flowers, and scarlet hips.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Middle
East, the rose is not now found in the wild except

as a garden escape. It has been cultivated for at least
3,000 years. The flowers are gathered in summer.
Parts Used Flowers, essential oil.
Constituents Rose contains a volatile oil
consisting of geraniol, nerol, citronellol, geranic acid
and other terpenes, and many other substances.
History & Folklore The rose comes originally
from Iran and has been cultivated there since
antiquity. Sappho, the 6th-century bce Greek poet,
described the red rose as the “Queen of flowers.”
In Rome, it was much used in festivities and the
petals were consumed as food. Rosewater
was prepared by the Arab physician Avicenna
(980-1037 ce). During the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance, the rose was esteemed as a remedy
for depression.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The rose is
currently little used in herbal medicine, but it is
probably time for a reevaluation of its medicinal
benefits. The essential oil, called “attar of rose,”
is used in aromatherapy as a mildly sedative,
antidepressant, and anti-inflammatory remedy.

Rose petals and their preparations have a similar
action. They also reduce high cholesterol levels.
Rosewater is mildly astringent and makes a valuable
lotion for inflamed and sore eyes.

Caution Do not take the essential oil internally
without professional supervision.

Rubia tinctorum (Rubiaceae)

Madder

Description Evergreen perennial growing to
3 ft (I m). Has whorls of finely toothed lance¬
shaped leaves, greenish-white flowers, and black
berries containing 2 seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Madder is native to
southern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa.
It flourishes in open areas and on roadsides, and
amid rubble. The root is unearthed in autumn.
Part Used Root.

Constituents Madder contains anthraquinone
derivatives (including ruberythric acid, alizarin,
and purpurin), an iridoid (asperuloside), resin,
and calcium.

History & Folklore Throughout history,
madder has been used principally as a red dye for
a variety of fabrics. In the ancient world, madder
root was taken medicinally to treat jaundice,
sciatica, and paralysis, and it was also used as a
diuretic. When ingested, madder imparts its
distinctive color to bones, milk, and urine, and it
probably owed much of its reputation as a diuretic
to this property.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Madder fell
largely out of use in the 19th century, and is
now only rarely employed to treat kidney and
bladder stones.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

R U B U S FRUTICOSUS

Rubus fruticosus (Rosaceae)

Blackberry

Description Sprawling prickly
shrub growing to 13 ft (4 m).

Has palm-shaped leaves with
3-5 lobes, white to pale pink
flowers and clusters of black berries. Fruit
Habitat & Cultivation Native to
temperate areas of Europe, blackberry is
naturalized in the Americas and in Australia. It
is commonly found along roads, in open areas, and
in woodlands. The leaves are gathered in summer,
the berries in summer and autumn.

Parts Used Leaves, berries.

Constituents Blackberry leaves contain tannins,
flavonoids, and gallic acid. The fruit contains
anthocyanins, pectin, fruit acids, and vitamin C.
History & Folklore As early as the I st century
ce, the physician Dioscorides recommended ripe
blackberries in a gargle for sore throats. In European
folk medicine, blackberry leaves have long been
used for washing and staunching wounds. Arching
blackberry runners that had rooted at both ends
were credited with magical properties. In England,
for example, children with hernias were pushed
under arched runners for a magical cure.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Blackberry
leaves are strongly astringent and may be used
as a mouthwash to strengthen spongy gums and
ease mouth ulcers, as a gargle for sore throats,
and as a decoction to relieve diarrhea and
hemorroids. Like many red or purple fruits,
such as bilberry ( Voccinium myrtillus, p. 147),
blackberry fruit and juice has significant antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory activity, helping to maintain
a healthy circulation.

Related Species See raspberry (R. idaeus,
following entry).

Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae)

Raspberry

264

Description Deciduous shrub growing to
6 'A ft (2 m). Has woody stems with prickles, pale
green leaves with 3-7 leaflets, white flowers, and
red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
Asia, raspberry now grows wild and is cultivated in
many temperate regions. The leaves are collected
in early summer, the fruit when ripe in summer.
Parts Used Leaves, fruit.

Constituents The fruit contains polyphenols,
especially anthocyanins, which have antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory activity, pectin, fruit sugars,
and acids. Raspberry seed oil is rich in vitamin E,
carotenes, and essential fatty acids, and is
increasingly used in cosmetic skin products.

History & Folklore In 1735, the Irish herbalist
K’Eogh described uses for raspberry: “an application
of the flowers bruised with honey is beneficial for
inflammations of the eyes, burning fever and boils
... The fruit is good for the heart and diseases of
the mouth.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Raspberry
leaves are mainly used to encourage easy labor.
While the specific mode of action is unknown,
the leaves are thought to strengthen the longitudinal
muscles of the uterus, increasing the force of
contractions and thereby hastening childbirth.

A decoction of raspberry leaves may be used to
relieve diarrhea. The leaves also find use as an
astringent external remedy—as an eyewash for
conjunctivitis, a mouthwash for mouth problems,
or a lotion for ulcers, wounds, or excessive
vaginal discharge.

Raspberry leaves
and fruit have been
used since classical
times as an
astringent remedy.

Research A laboratory study in 2012 found that
a raspberry fruit extract reduced joint inflammation,
cartilage damage, and bone resorption.

Caution Do not take medicinally during the early
stages of pregnancy.

Self-help Use Preparing for childbirth, p. 3 17.

Rumex acetosella (Polygonaceae)

Sheep’s Sorrel

Description Slender low-growing perennial.

Has arrow-shaped leaves and terminal spikes
bearing small green flowers that turn red as their
seeds ripen.

Habitat & Cultivation Sheep’s sorrel is found
in most temperate regions of the world. It grows in
open areas and in meadows, and is gathered in
early summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Sheep’s sorrel contains oxalates
and anthraquinones (including chrysophanol,
emodin, and physcion).

History & Folklore Apart from its role as a
salad vegetable, sheep’s sorrel is an ingredient of
an anticancer remedy known as essiac. A Native
American formula, essiac also includes burdock
(Arctium lappa, p. 65) and slippery elm (Ulmus rubra,
p. 145). Western herbalists learned of it early in

the 20th century, after a Canadian nurse
observed the recovery from breast cancer of
a patient who had taken the formula. Essiac has
since had a checkered history. Despite attempts
to initiate proper clinical trials, none has yet
been undertaken.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Sheeps sorrel
is a detoxifying herb, the fresh juice having a
pronounced diuretic effect. Like other members
of the dock family, sheep’s sorrel is mildly laxative,
and holds potential as a long-term treatment for
chronic disease, in particular that of the
gastrointestinal tract.

Related Species Sorrel (R. acetosa ) is a
European relative that is also taken for its detoxifying
effect. See also yellow dock (R. crispus, following entry)
and Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmatum, p. 126).
Caution Sheep’s sorrel should not be taken by
anyone with a tendency to develop kidney stones.

Rumex crispus (Polygonaceae)

Yellow Dock,

Curled Dock

Description Perennial, growing to 3 ft (I m),
with lance-shaped leaves and many small green
flowers arranged in whorls on the upper part
of the stem.

Habitat & Cultivation A common wayside
plant in many regions of the world, yellow dock
thrives in ditches, on verges and in open areas,
and barely needs cultivation. The roots are dug
up in autumn, chopped, and dried.

Parts Used Root.

Constituents Yellow dock contains
anthraquinones (about 2.5%), tannins (3-6%),
flavonoids, and oxalates.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though a
valuable herb, yellow dock is not often used on
its own, being combined with other alterative
herbs such as burdock root (Arctium lappa, p. 65)
and dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141)
for long-term toxic conditions. Its gentle laxative
action makes it a valuable remedy for constipation,
particularly when combined with changes to the
diet such as increased bulk and fiber. By stimulating
large intestine function, the feces are eliminated
more efficiently, with reduced reabsorption of
waste products, a form of toxicity that tends
to occur in a poorly functioning colon. Yellow
dock is also thought to improve the flow of
bile, which further contributes to its detoxifying
activity. It is also typically taken for skin conditions
such as acne, eczema, and fungal infections, and
for arthritic problems.

Research The anthraquinones are purgative
and laxative (see Cassia senna, p. 75), but this
activity is tempered by the tannins, which counter

SALVIA S C LA R EA

the irritant effect of the anthraquinones within
the gut. The presence of oxalates suggests that
yellow dock is best avoided in gout and kidney
stones. The leaf has high levels of oxalates, and
poisoning and death have resulted from eating
the leaves as a salad vegetable.

Caution Avoid during pregnancy and while
breastfeeding.

Ruscus aculeatus (Liliaceae)

Butcher’s Broom

Description Bushy evergreen perennial growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has leaf-like leathery branches with
a terminal spine, greenish-white flowers, and shiny
red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Butcher’s broom
is found throughout much of Europe, western
Asia, and North Africa. It is a protected species,
growing wild in woodland and on uncultivated
ground. Cultivated plants are gathered in autumn
when in fruit.

Parts Used Aerial parts, rhizome.
Constituents Butcher’s broom contains saponin
glycosides, including ruscogenin and neoruscogenin.
These constituents have a structure similar to that
of diosgenin, found in wild yam (Dioscorea villosa,
p. 91). They are anti-inflammatory and cause the
contraction of blood vessels, especially veins.
History & Folklore Much used in antiquity,
butcher’s broom was described by the I st century
ce Greek physician Dioscorides as having the ability
to promote urine flow and menstrual bleeding.

The plant’s name comes from its use

as a broom in butchers’ shops in Europe up until

the 20th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though little
used in Anglo-American herbal medicine, butcher’s
broom is now a common remedy in Germany
for venous problems. It has been shown to have
a directly positive effect on varicose veins and
hemorroids, preventing increased tensing of the
veins and helping the return of excess fluid into
the veins. Extracts can be taken orally or applied
to affected legs.

Research A growing body of research is
demonstrating that butcher’s broom is a valuable
medicine for venous disorders. In a clinical trial,
patients with varicose veins who applied a
butcher’s broom extract to their legs showed a
contraction of 1.25 mm in their femoral artery
within 2% hours. A paper published in the Journal
of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 2000
identifies butcher’s broom as having great potential
as a medicine for orthostatic hypotension (a
specific form of low blood pressure).

Caution Do not take butcher’s broom if suffering
from high blood pressure.

Ruta graveolens (Rutaceae)

Rue

Description Strongly aromatic evergreen
perennial growing to 3 ft (I m). Has fleshy 3-lobed
leaves, yellow-green 5-petaled flowers, and round
seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Rue grows in the
Mediterranean region, preferring open sunny sites.
It is also cultivated in many parts of the world as
both a garden ornamental and a medicinal plant.
The aerial parts are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Rue contains about 0.5% volatile
oil (including 50-90% 2-undecanone), flavonoids
(including rutin), furanocoumarins (including
bergapten), and about 1.4% furoquinoline alkaloids
(including fagarine, arborinine, skimmianine,
and others). Rutin has the effect of supporting and
strengthening the inner lining of blood vessels
and reducing blood pressure.

History & Folklore In ancient Greece and
Egypt, rue was employed to stimulate menstrual
bleeding, to induce abortion, and to strengthen
the eyesight.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Rue is chiefly
used to encourage the onset of menstruation. It
stimulates the muscles of the uterus and promotes
menstrual blood flow. In European herbal medicine,
rue has also been taken to treat conditions as
varied as hysteria, epilepsy, vertigo, colic, intestinal
worms, poisoning, and eye problems. The latter
use is well founded, as an infusion used as an
eyewash brings quick relief to strained and tired
eyes, and reputedly improves the eyesight. Rue
has been used to treat many other conditions,
including multiple sclerosis and Bell’s palsy.
Research Rue is currently being investigated for
its potential use as an anticancer treatment.
Related Species The related species,

R. chalepensis, which is also native to the
Mediterranean region, is used to expel worms, to
promote menstrual flow, and to soothe sore eyes.
Cautions Rue is toxic in excess. Never take
during pregnancy. The fresh plant frequently causes
dermatitis, so wear gloves while handling it. Taken
internally, rue may cause an allergic skin reaction
to sunlight.

Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae)

Clary Sage

Description Square-stemmed biennial growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has hairy wrinkled leaves and whorls
of pale blue flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe and the Middle East, clary sage is now
cultivated in France and Russia for its essential oil. It
prefers sunny conditions and dry soil. It is gathered
in summer, usually in its second year.

Parts Used Aerial parts, seeds, and the
essential oil.

Constituents Clary sage contains 0.1 % volatile
oil (consisting mainly of linalyl acetate and linalool),
diterpenes, and tannins.

History & Folklore Clary sage has been
perceived both as a weaker version of its close
relative, sage (S. offcinalis, p. 131), and as a significant
herb in its own right. Since the seeds were once
commonly used to treat eye problems, clary sage
was also known as “clear eye.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses An antispasmodic
and aromatic plant, clary sage is used today mainly
to treat digestive problems such as gas and
indigestion. It is also regarded as atonic, calming
herb that helps relieve period pain and premenstrual
problems. Owing to its estrogen-stimulating action,
it is most effective when levels of this hormone are
low. The plant can therefore be a valuable remedy
for complaints that are associated with menopause,
particularly hot flashes.

Cautions Do not take clary sage essential oil
internally. Do not use clary sage during pregnancy.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS

Sanguinaria canadensis
(Papaveraceae)

Bloodroot

Description Perennial plant growing to
6 in (15 cm). Has palm-shaped leaves and solitary
flower stems bearing attractive white flowers with
8-12 petals.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to
northeastern North America, bloodroot grows in
shady woods. It is cultivated as a garden plant.

The rhizome is unearthed in summer or autumn.
Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Bloodroot contains isoquinoline
alkaloids, notably sanguinarine (1%), and many
others, including berberine. Sanguinarine is a
strongly expectorant substance that also has
antiseptic and local anaesthetic properties.
History & Folklore Bloodroot was a
traditional remedy of Native Americans, who
used it to treat fevers and rheumatism, to induce
vomiting, and as an element in divination. The
rhizome’s bright red juice has been used as a
rouge. From 1820 to 1926, bloodroot was listed
as an expectorant in the Pharmacopoeia of the
United States.

Medicinal Actions & Uses

In contemporary herbal medic
bloodroot is chiefly employed
as an expectorant, promoting
coughing and the clearing of
mucus from the respiratory
tract. The plant is prescribed
for chronic bronchitis and—
as it also has an antispasmodic
effect—for asthma and
whooping cough. Bloodroot
may also be used as a gargle
for sore throats, and as
a wash or ointment for fungal and viral skin
conditions such as athlete’s foot and warts,
o Cautions Take only under professional
supervision and do not exceed the dose.
Bloodroot induces vomiting in all but very small
doses, and at excessive doses it is toxic. Do not
take during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, or if
suffering from glaucoma.

Sanguisorba officinalis

syn. Poterium officinalis (Rosaceae)

Greater Burnet

Description Perennial herb growing to 2 ft
(60 cm). Has long-stalked compound leaves with
13 leaflets, and purple flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
North Africa, and temperate regions of Asia,

greater burnet flourishes in damp pastures,
especially in mountainous regions. It is cultivated
as a fodder crop and as a salad vegetable, and is
gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Greater burnet contains tannins,
including sanguisorbic acid, dilactone (a phenolic
acid), and gum.

History & Folklore In Europe, greater burnet
has long been used as a fodder for animals and
as an ingredient in beer-making. As its Latin name
implies, it has also been employed as a wound
healer: sanguis means “blood”; sorbeo means
“I staunch.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Greater burnet
is still used to slow or arrest blood flow. In both
the Chinese and European traditions, it is taken
internally to treat heavy periods and uterine
hemorrhage. Externally, a lotion or ointment
may be used for hemorrhoids, burns, wounds,
and eczema. Greater burnet is also a valuable
astringent and is employed for a variety of
gastrointestinal problems, including diarrhea,
dysentery, and ulcerative colitis, particularly if
accompanied by bleeding.

Research Chinese research indicates that
the whole herb heals burns more effectively
than the extracted tannins. Patients suffering
from eczema showed marked improvement
when treated with an ointment made from
greater burnet root and petroleum jelly.

Sanicula europaea (Apiaceae)

Sanicle

Description Perennial growing to 16 in (40 cm).
Has long-stalked, palm-shaped, shiny leaves, with
clusters of pale pink to greenish-white flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout
most of Europe and western and central Asia,
sanicle is common in woodland areas, particularly
in damp shady sites. It is collected in summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Sanicle contains up to 1 3%
saponins, allantoin, a volatile oil, tannins, chlorogenic
and rosmarinic acid, mucilage, and vitamin C.
Allantoin increases the healing rate of damaged
tissue. Rosmarinic acid is anti-inflammatory.
History & Folklore Sanicle derives from sanus,
meaning “whole” or “sound” in Latin. St. Hildegard
of Bingen (1098-1 179), who wrote the earliest
extant description of sanicle’s use in healing wounds,
states of the herb that it “is hot, and there is much
purity in it, and its juice is sweet and healthful, that
is wholesome.” During the 15th and 16th centuries
sanicle became a popular herbal medicine. The
17th-century English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper
praised sanicle’s ability “to heal all green wounds

speedily, or any ulcer, imposthumes, or bleedings
inwardly,” and compared its benefits to those of
comfrey ( Symphytum officinale, p. 138) and self-heal
(Prunella vulgaris, p. 256).

Medicinal Actions & Uses With its
longstanding reputation for healing wounds and
treating internal bleeding, sanicle is a potentially
valuable plant, but it is little used in contemporary
herbal medicine. Sanicle may be used to treat
bleeding within the stomach or intestines, the
coughing up of blood, and nosebleeds. It may also
be of use in treating diarrhea and dysentery,
bronchial and congestive problems, and sore
throats. This herb is traditionally thought to be
detoxifying and has also been taken internally for
skin problems. Externally, sanicle may be applied in
the form of a poultice or ointment for the
treatment of wounds, burns, chilblains,
hemorrhoids, and inflamed skin.

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Sandalwood,

Chandan

Description Semiparasitic evergreen tree
growing to 33 ft (10 m). Has lance-shaped leaves,
clusters of pale yellow to purple flowers, and small,
nearly black fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
India, sandalwood is cultivated in Southeast Asia for
its wood and essential oil. The trees are felled
throughout the year.

Parts Used Wood, essential oil.

Constituents Sandalwood
contains 3-6% volatile
oil (which consists
predominantly of
the sesquiterpenols
alpha- and beta-
santalol), resin,
and tannins.

History & Folklore

Sandalwood’s aroma has
been highly esteemed in
China and India for thousands of years. The
wood is often burned as incense and plays a part
in Hindu ritual. The heartwood is most often
used in perfumery, but it has also been taken
as a remedy in China since around 500 ce.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Sandalwood
and its essential oil are used for their antiseptic
properties in treating genitourinary conditions such
as cystitis and gonorrhea. In Ayurvedic medicine, a
paste of the wood is used to soothe rashes and
itchy skin. In China, sandalwood is held to be useful
for chest and abdominal pain.

Caution Do not take sandalwood essential
oil internally.

Sandalwood

SAUSSUREA LAPPA

Saponaria officinalis
(Caryophyllaceae)

Soapwort

Description Perennial growing to a height of
3 ft (I m). Soapwort has lance-shaped leaves and
clusters of delicate pink 5-petaled tubular flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to temperate
regions of Europe, Asia, and North America,
soapwort thrives in open woodland areas and
on railroad embankments. It has been widely
cultivated as a garden plant. The herb is gathered
while in flower in summer; the root is unearthed
in autumn.

Parts Used Root, aerial parts.

Constituents All parts of soapwort contain
saponins (around 5%), resin, and a small quantity
of volatile oil.

and arthritic pain. A decoction of the root, and, to
a lesser extent, an infusion of the aerial parts of
the herb, make soothing washes for eczema and
other itchy skin conditions.

O Cautions Soapwort is a potentially toxic herb.
Take internally only under professional supervision.

Sargassum fusiforme (Sargassaceae)

Hai Zao,

Hijiki

Description Brown seaweed (alga) with long
thin fronds.

Habitat & Cultivation Hai zao is found
along the coastlines of China and Japan, where it
is often seen floating in large masses. It is gathered
throughout the year.

Part Used Whole plant.

Constituents Hai zao contains polysaccharides,
alginic acid, and significant levels of potassium
and iodine.

History & Folklore Wang Tao, an 8th-century
Chinese physician, recommended hai zao for goiter
(an enlargement of the thyroid gland due to iodine
deficiency). Hai zao is eaten as a vegetable in
Chinese and Japanese cuisine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Hai zao is used
in a similar way to its European counterpart, the
seaweed bladderwrack, or kelp (Fucus vesiculosus,
p. 213). In Chinese medicine, it is given principally
to treat thyroid problems caused by low iodine levels
within the body. The herb also helps to combat other
thyroid conditions that produce enlargement of the
gland, for example Hashimotos thyroiditis. Hai zao is
prescribed to treat cases of scrofula (enlargement of
the lymph glands in the neck due to tubercular
infection) and edema (fluid retention).

Research Chinese research indicates that hai zao
has antifungal and immunomodulating activity.
Related Species In Chinese medicine,

S. fusiforme is used interchangeably with S. pallidum.
O Caution Do not take hai zao for thyroid
problems without professional supervision.

Winter savory helps
to alleviate fatulence,
indigestion, and colic.

Constituents Winter
savory contains about
1 .6% volatile oil, composed
mainly of carvacrol, p-cymene,
linalool, and thymol.

History & Folklore
Winter savory was classified
as “heating and drying” by the
classical physicians Dioscorides
and Galen, and was thought to have
therapeutic benefits similar to those
of thyme ('Thymus vulgaris, p. 143).

Medicinal Actions & Uses
Winter savory is most often used in
cooking, but it also has marked medicinal benefits.
It settles gas and stimulates digestion, helping to
alleviate flatulence and colic. It is warming and has
been taken for chest infections and bronchitis.
The essential oil is strongly antibacterial and
may be used to treat candidiasis and other
fungal conditions.

Related Species Summer savory (S. hortensis )
is a similar herb that has a milder essential oil.
Calamint (Calamintha ascendens, p. 18 I) is another
close relative.

Cautions Do not take the essential oil internally
without professional supervision. Do not take
winter savory during pregnancy.

Saussurea lappa

syn. S. costus (Asteraceae)

Kuth

History & Folklore Soapwort has mostly
been used as a substitute for soap, especially in
washing clothes. Boerhaave (1668-1738), a Dutch
physician, recommended soapwort as a treatment
for jaundice.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Soapwort s
main internal use is as an expectorant. Its strongly
irritant action within the gut is thought to stimulate
the cough reflex and increase the production of a
more fluid mucus within the respiratory passages.
Consequently, the plant is prescribed for bronchitis,
coughs, and some cases of asthma. Soapwort may
be taken for other problems, including rheumatic

Satureja montana (Lamiaceae)

Winter Savory

Description Semi-evergreen aromatic herb
growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves
and white-pink flowers appearing in clusters.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe, winter savory thrives in sunny, well-drained
sites. It is commonly cultivated as a garden herb.
The flowering tops are collected in summer.

Parts Used Flowering tops, essential oil.

Description Upright perennial herb growing
to 10 ft (3 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and
blue-black flowerheads.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian
subcontinent, kuth is most commonly found in
mountainous areas of Kashmir. The root is
gathered in autumn.

Parts Used Root, essential oil.
Constituents Kuth contains a volatile oil
(consisting of terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and
aplotaxene), an alkaloid (saussarine), and a resin.
Saussarine depresses the parasympathetic
nervous system.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

SCHIZONEPETA T E N U I F 0 L I A

History & Folklore Kuth root has been used
in Indian medicine for at least 2,500 years. It has
also been exported to China and the Middle East.
The fragrant root is often used in perfumery. In
India, it is valued as an aphrodisiac and for its
reputed ability to prevent gray hair.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Kuth is used in
the Ayurvedic and Unani Tibb traditions in India
for its tonic, stimulant, and antiseptic properties.
The root is commonly taken, in combination with
other herbs, for respiratory system problems such
as bronchitis, asthma, and coughs. It is also used to
treat cholera.

Related species S. amoro is used in Mongolian
herbal medicine to treat bacterial infections and
gallbladder disease.

Caution Do not take kuth essential oil internally.

Schizonepeta tenuifolia
(Lamiaceae)

Jing Jie

Description Perennial plant growing to 26 ft
(8 m) with upright square stems, lance-shaped
leaves, and whorls of small flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Far East,
jing jie is widely cultivated in eastern China. The
aerial parts of the plant are gathered in autumn.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents jing jie contains a volatile oil,
the main constituents of which are menthone
and limonene.

Medicinal Actions & Uses In the Chinese
tradition, jing jie is valued as an aromatic and
warming herb. It is taken to alleviate skin conditions
such as boils and itch i ness. Jing jie also induces
sweating and is used to treat fever and chills, and
as a remedy for measles. It is often combined with
bo he (Mentha haplocalyx, p. 234).

Research Chinese studies have confirmed jingjie’s
ability to increase blood flow in the vessels just
beneath the skin.

Scolopendrium vulgare
(Polypodiaceae)

Hartstongue

Description Evergreen fern growing to 2 ft
(60 cm). Has long, tongue-shaped fronds with twin
rows of spores on the underside.

Habitat & Cultivation Hartstongue is found
throughout much of Europe, North Africa, East
Asia, and North America. It prefers shaded sites
in woodlands and on banks and walls. The fronds
are gathered throughout the summer.

Parts Used Fronds.

Hartstongue is found growing in shady woodland sites across
the northern hemisphere.

Constituents Hartstongue contains tannins,
mucilage, and flavonoids (including leucodelphidin).
History & Folklore Hartstongue has been
prescribed as a treatment for diarrhea and
dysentery for at least 2,000 years. In Wales and
the Scottish Highlands, it was traditionally used as
a poultice for wounds, scalds, and burns, and as an
ointment for hemorrhoids. In Japan, the fronds
were smoked by the Ainu people.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Hartstongue was
valued in the past for its ability to heal wounds, but
today it is employed chiefly as a mild astringent. It
is sometimes used in the treatment of diarrhea
and IBS, and it may be of benefit to the liver and
spleen. Hartstongue appears to have expectorant
properties, and it is also mildly diuretic.

Scrophularia nodosa
(Scrophulariaceae)

Figwort

Description Upright perennial herb growing
to 3 ft (I m). Has a square stem, oval leaves, small
round brown flowers in clusters, and green
seed capsules.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
Central Asia, and North America, figwort thrives
in wet or damp places, in open woodland, on
riverbanks, and alongside ditches. The herb is
gathered in the summer while in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Figwort contains iridoids
(including aucubin, harpagoside, and acetyl
harpagide), flavonoids, cardioactive glycosides,
and phenolic acids. Harpagoside and harpagide
are thought to account for its antiarthritic activity.
History & Folklore Figwort’s genus name,
Scrophularia, alludes to the plant’s age-old use as a
treatment for scrofula. In this condition, the lymph

nodes of the neck, infected with tuberculosis, swell
to form hard protruding lumps beneath the skin.
Figwort root resembles these swollen glands and
therefore, according to the Doctrine of Signatures
(which holds that a plant’s appearance indicates
the ailments it treats), the herb was considered
to be an appropriate remedy for treating scrofula.
Indeed, in the 16th and 17th centuries, figwort was
esteemed as the best medicinal plant to help
relieve all manner of swellings and tumors.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Figwort is an
herb that supports detoxification of the body
and may be used as a treatment for various types
of skin conditions. Taken internally as an infusion
or applied externally, figwort is of value in treating
chronic skin diseases such as eczema and psoriasis.
Applied externally, it will also help speed the healing
of burns, wounds, hemorrhoids, and ulcers. The
traditional use of figwort as a treatment for swellings
and tumors continues in Europe to this day. The
herb is also mildly diuretic, and it is reputed to be
effective when used to expel worms.

Related Species Water figwort (S. aquatica ),
another plant that is native to Europe, has similar
properties, as does the American S. marylandica.

In China, S. ningopoensis is used to treat infections
and to clear toxicity.

Caution Do not take figwort if suffering from
a heart condition.

Selenicereus grandifJorus
(Cactaceae)

Night-blooming

Cereus

Description Climbing multibranched perennial
cactus with upright cylindrical stems and aerial
roots. Produces large flowerbuds opening into
night-blooming white flowers that grow to 8 in
(20 cm) across, and red oval fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Mexico
and Central America, night-blooming cereus is now
rarely found in the wild. It is cultivated both as an
ornamental and a medicinal plant. The flowers and
young stems are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Flowers, young stems.
Constituents Night-blooming cereus contains
alkaloids (including cactine), flavonoids (isorhamnetin),
and a pigment. Cactine’s cardiotonic effect is
considered similar to that of cardiac glycosides (see
foxglove, Digitalis species, p. 202).

Medicinal Actions & Uses As it is in short
supply, night-blooming cereus is little used at
present, but it is a valuable remedy for the heart.

It stimulates the action of the heart, increasing the
strength of contractions while slowing heart rate. It
is prescribed as a treatment for various conditions,

SESAMUM 1 N D I C U M

including angina and low blood pressure, and is
often given as atonic during recovery from a heart
attack. In the Caribbean, the juice of the whole
plant is used to expel worms, and the stems and
flowers are used in the treatment of rheumatism.
O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Excessive doses may cause stomach
upset and hallucinations.

Night-blooming cereus has spectacular flowers that open
at dusk and close at dawn.

Sempervivum tectorum
(Crassulaceae)

Houseleek

Description Succulent perennial growing to
4 in (10 cm). Has round rosettes of leaves, and
flowering stems bearing clusters of bell-shaped
red flowers.

v

Houseleek’s succulent leaves contain tannins and mucilage,
both soothing to the skin.

Habitat & Cultivation The herb is native
to central and southern Europe and now grows
wild in northern Europe, North Africa, and
western Asia, preferring sandy dry soil. Houseleek
is widely cultivated as a garden plant. The leaves
are picked in summer.

Parts Used Leaves, leaf juice.

Constituents Houseleek contains polyphenols,
including procyanidins and mucilage.

History & Folklore The Frankish King
Charlemagne (742-8 14 ce) told his subjects
to plant houseleek on their roofs, as the plant
reputedly warded off lightning and fire.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Houseleek
leaves and their juice are used for their cooling
and astringent effect, being applied externally
to soothe many skin conditions, including burns,
wounds, boils, and corns. As with many other
remedies that are both astringent and soothing,
houseleek simultaneously tightens and softens
the skin. Traditionally, the leaves have been
chewed to relieve toothache, and the juice
has been sniffed to stop nosebleeds. Houseleek
is still used externally, but internal use of this
herb is not advised because in large doses it
will induce vomiting.

Caution Do not take houseleek internally.

Senecio aureus syn. Packera aurea

Life Root,

Squaw Weed

Description Upright perennial growing to
3 ft (I m). Has lance-shaped leaves and clusters
of yellow daisy-type flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
North America, life root is found in marshes, and
on damp ground and riverbanks. The aerial parts
are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Life root contains a volatile
oil, pyrrolizidine alkaloids (including senecine,
senecionine, and otosenine), tannins, and resin.

In isolation, the pyrrolizidine alkaloids are highly
toxic to the liver.

History & Folklore The North American
Catawba people used life root to treat
gynecological problems in general, and
to relieve labor pains in particular.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Until
recently, life root was employed in Anglo-
American herbalism much as it was in earlier
times—as a means to induce menstrual periods
and to bring relief to menopausal complaints.
Today, the plant is recommended only for
external use, as a douche for excessive
vaginal discharge.

Related Species Ragwort ( S.jacobaea )
has traditionally been used as a poultice or
lotion to relieve rheumatic aches and pains.
Cautions Do not take life root internally.
The plant is subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Sesame,

EHei Zhi Ma

Description Erect annual growing to 6% ft
(2 m). Has lance-shaped to oval leaves, white, pink,
or mauve flowers, and oblong seed capsules
bearing many small gray seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Africa,
sesame is cultivated in tropical and subtropical
areas around the world. The root is unearthed in
summer; the seeds are collected after the seed
capsules have turned brown-black.

Sesame seeds are a rich source of unsaturated fatty acids
and calcium.

Parts Used Seeds, seed oil, root.
Constituents The seeds are highly nutritious
and contain about 55% oil (mainly polyunsaturated
fats), about 20% protein, lignans (notably sesamin
and sesamolin), vitamins B 3 and E, and minerals.
The lignans are thought to lower blood cholesterol
levels and blood pressure.

History & Folklore Sesame was one of
the plants found in the tomb of Tutankhamun

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

SM/LAX SPP.

(1370-1352 bce). In ancient Egypt, the nutritionally
valuable seeds were eaten and also pressed to yield
oil, which was burned in lamps and used to make
ointments. Sesame has long been considered to have
magical powers, and the phrase “Open sesame!”, from
the Arabian Nights, remains a well-known magical
command. The Middle Eastern confection halvah is
made from crushed and sweetened sesame seeds.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Sesame is
principally used as a food and flavoring agent in
China, but it is also taken to redress “states of
deficiency,” especially those affecting the liver and
kidneys. The seeds are prescribed for problems
such as dizziness, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and
blurred vision (when due to anemia). Owing to
their lubricating effect within the digestive tract,
the seeds are also considered a remedy for “dry”
constipation. The seeds have a marked ability to
stimulate the production of breast milk. Sesame
seed oil benefits the skin and is used as a base for
cosmetics. It can be used to treat fungal skin
problems such as athlete’s foot.

Research Research suggests that sesame
seeds have antibacterial and antifungal activity.

They also lower cholesterol and support levels
of “good cholesterol” (HDL).

Smilax spp. (Liliaceae)

Sarsaparilla

270

Description Perennial woody climber growing
to 16 ft (5 m). Has broadly ovate leaves, tendrils,
and small greenish flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Sarsaparilla species
are found in tropical rainforests and in temperate
regions in Asia and Australia. The root is gathered
throughout the year.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Sarsaparilla
contains I -3% steroidal
saponins, phytosterols (including
beta- and e-sitosterol), about 50%
starch, resin, sarsapic acid, and minerals.

Despite the herbs reputation for being
testosterogenic, the steroidal saponins and
sterols are estrogenic and anti-inflammatory.

The saponins also have antibiotic activity.

History & Folklore Brought from
the New World to Spain in 1563,
sarsaparilla was heralded as a cure
for syphilis, reportedly having been
used in the Caribbean with some
success. The claims, however, were
grossly inflated and the herbs popularity
soon waned. In Mexico, sarsaparilla has traditionally
been used to treat a variety of skin problems.
Before it was replaced by artificial agents, sarsaparilla
root was the original flavoring for root beer.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Sarsaparilla is
anti-inflammatory and cleansing, and the herb
can bring relief to skin problems such as eczema,
psoriasis, and general itchiness, and help treat
rheumatism, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout. Its
estrogenic action makes it beneficial in
premenstrual problems, and menopausal
conditions such as debility and depression. Native
Amazonian peoples take sarsaparilla to improve
virility and to treat menopausal problems. In
Mexico, the root is still frequently consumed for its
reputed tonic and aphrodisiac properties.
Research Some of the steroidal saponins have
been shown to bind to toxins within the gut,
reducing their absorption into the bloodstream.
This may account for sarsaparilla’s usefulness in
autoimmune conditions such as psoriasis,
rheumatoid arthritis, and ulcerative colitis, which
can be associated with this sort of toxicity. Clinical
research in China suggests that sarsaparilla might
hold potential in the treatment of leptospirosis,
a rare disease transmitted to humans by rats, and
the acute stage of syphilis.

Solarium dulcamara (Solanaceae)

Common Nightshade

Description Slender-stemmed, woody climber
growing to 13 ft (4 m). Has deeply lobed oval
leaves, dark purple flowers with yellow anthers,
and scarlet oval berries.

Common nightshade

treats skin problems
and bronchitis.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
North Africa, and northern Asia, this herb has
been naturalized in North America. A common
wayside plant, it flourishes in open areas. The twigs
are collected in spring or autumn, and the root
bark in autumn.

Parts Used Twigs, root bark.

Constituents Common nightshade contains
steroidal alkaloids (including solasodine and
soldulcamaridine), steroidal saponins, and about
10% tannins.

History & Folklore The Swedish botanist
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) considered the
herb to be a valuable remedy for fever and
inflammatory disorders. The herb is also called
bittersweet, perhaps referring to the initial bitter
taste of the berries, followed by a sweet aftertaste.
Medicinal Actions & Uses This plant has
stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, detoxifying, and
antirheumatic properties. It appears to be most
effective taken internally to treat skin problems
such as eczema, itchiness, psoriasis, and warts.

A decoction of the twigs, applied as a wash,
may also help to lessen the severity of these
conditions. The herb may also be taken to relieve
asthma, chronic bronchitis, and rheumatic
conditions, including gout.

O Caution Common nightshade is toxic in
excess. Take only under professional supervision.

Solarium melongena (Solanaceae)

Eggplant,

Aubergine

Description An erect, herbaceous perennial
growing to 28 in (70 cm). Has slightly woolly leaves,
violet flowers, and large purple fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to India and
Southeast Asia, the eggplant is now cultivated in
many tropical areas and also grown under glass
in cooler climates. The fruit is gathered when ripe
in summer or autumn.

Parts Used Fruit, fruit juice, leaves.
Constituents Eggplant contains proteins,

tmtp carbohydrates, and vitamins A, B,, B 2 ,
and C.

History & Folklore Eggplant has been
cultivated as a food in southern and eastern Asia
since ancient times.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Eggplant fruit
helps to lower blood cholesterol levels and is
suitable as part of a diet to help regulate high
blood pressure. The fruit can be applied fresh
as a poultice for hemorrhoids, but it is more
commonly used in the form of an oil or ointment.
The fruit and its juice are effective diuretics. A
soothing, emollient poultice for the treatment of
burns, abscesses, cold sores, and similar conditions

S 0 R B U S AUCUPARIA

can be made from eggplant leaves. The mashed
fruit can also be applied to sunburn.

Research German research (published in 1975)
indicates that eggplant helps to prevent the
accumulation of fatty deposits within arteries.
Caution Eggplant leaves are toxic and should
only be used externally.

Solarium tuberosum (Solanaceae)

Potato

Description Perennial growing to 3 ft (I m).

Has branching stems with compound leaves,
white or purple flowers, green berries, and swollen
tubers (potatoes).

Potato can be helpful in relieving the painful symptoms of
a gastric ulcer.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Chile,
Bolivia, and Peru, the potato plant with its many
varieties is cultivated around the world. The tuber
is normally unearthed from autumn to early spring.
Part Used Tuber.

Constituents Potato contains starch, large
amounts of vitamins A, B,, B 2 , C, and K, minerals
(especially potassium), and very small quantities of
atropine alkaloids. One property of these alkaloids
is the reduction of digestive secretions, including
acids produced in the stomach.

History & Folklore Many different potato
species and varieties were cultivated by the
Quechua and Aymara peoples of the central
Andes. In the early 16th century, the potato
was introduced into Europe by Spanish voyagers
returning from the New World. It was not until
the 18th century that the potato became a staple
ingredient in the European diet.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Taken in
moderation, potato juice can be helpful in the
treatment of peptic ulcers, bringing relief from

pain and acidity. The juice or the mashed pulp
may be used externally to soothe painful joints,
headache, backache, skin rashes, and hemorrhoids.
Potato skins are used in India to treat swollen gums
and to heal burns.

Related Species The root of the Brazilian
S. insidiosum is used as a diuretic and stomach¬
supporting remedy.

Cautions All parts of the plant except the tuber
are poisonous. Excessive doses of potato juice are
toxic. Do not drink the juice of more than one
large potato per day.

Solidago virgaurea (Asteraceae)

Goldenrod

Description Perennial plant growing to 28 in
(70 cm). Has toothed leaves and branched spikes
of golden-yellow flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and
Asia and naturalized in North America, goldenrod
prefers open areas and hillsides. It is gathered in
summer while in flower.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Goldenrod is a

valuable remedy for
urethritis, nephritis,
cystitis, and other
ailments of the
urinary tract.

Constituents Goldenrod contains saponins,
diterpenes, phenolic glucosides, acetylenes,
cinnamates, flavonoids, tannins, hydroxybenzoates,
and inulin. The saponins are antifungal.

History & Folklore The herbalist John Gerard
commented wryly in 1597 that “goldenrod has in
times past been had in greater estimation and regard
than in these days: for within my remembrance,

I have known the dry herb which came from
beyond the seas, sold ... for half a crown an
ounce. But since it was found in Hampstead
wood [London] ... no man will give half a
crown for an hundredweight of it: which plainly
setteth forth our inconstancy and sudden
mutability, esteeming no longer of anything
(how precious soever it may be) than whilst
it is strange and rare.” Four hundred years on,
one can only agree.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Antioxidant,
diuretic, and astringent, goldenrod is a valuable
remedy for urinary tract disorders. It is used both
for serious ailments such as nephritis, and for more
common problems like cystitis. The herb also has
a reputation for helping to flush out kidney and
bladder stones. Goldenrod’s saponins act
specifically against the Candida fungus, the cause
of vaginal yeast infection and oral thrush. The herb
can also be taken for conditions such as sore
throats, chronic nasal congestion, and diarrhea.

Due to its mild action, goldenrod is used to treat
gastroenteritis in children. Externally, it may be
used as a mouthwash or douche for thrush.
Related Species Various Solidago species are
used medicinally in North America. Several species,
including Canadian goldenrod (S. canadensis ), have
been taken to relieve colds, fevers, and chest pain.
Sweet-scented goldenrod (S. odora) was listed
as a stimulant, carminative, and diaphoretic
(sweat-inducer) in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia
from 1820 to 1882.

Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with
congestion, p. 300; Urinary infections, p. 3 14.

Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae)

Eastern Mountain Ash

Description Deciduous tree growing to
12 m (39 ft). Has reddish bark, compound leaves,
clusters of small white flowers, and clusters of round
red-orange fruit (berries). Also known as Rowan.

Habitat & Cultivation Mountain ash grows in
woodlands throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

It is also cultivated as an ornamental tree.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents The fruit contains tannins,
sorbitol, malic and sorbic acids, sugars, and
vitamin C. The seeds contain cyanogenic
glycosides, which, in a reaction upon

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

SPIGELIA MARILANDICA

contact with water, produce
the extremely poisonous
prussic acid.

History & Folklore In

the Scottish Highlands, this
tree was believed to be a
reliable antidote to
Ash berries witchcraft. Highlanders

planted it near their houses,
and cowherds believed that by using an ash switch
to drive their cattle they could protect them from
evil influences. The fruit has long been used to
make preserves and alcoholic drinks.

Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent
mountain ash is most often taken as a jam or an
infusion to treat diarrhea and hemorrhoids. In
addition, infusions may be used as a gargle for sore
throats and as a wash to treat hemorrhoids and
excessive vaginal discharge.

Caution Remove the toxic seeds prior to using
the fruit as a medicine or a food.

Spigelia marilandica (Loganiaceae)

Pinkroot

272

Description Perennial plant with oval to
lance-shaped leaves, spikes of brilliant red-pink
flowers, and a double seed capsule.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
southern regions of the U.S., pinkroot flourishes
in dry rich soil in clearings and along woodland
borders. The root is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Pinkroot contains alkaloids
(mainly spigeleine), a volatile oil, tannin, and resin.
Spigeleine is emetic and irritant to the stomach.
History & Folklore Pinkroot was used
extensively by Native Americans as a worm-expelling
herb. It was gathered for trade with white settlers
by the Creek and Cherokee peoples. From the late
18th century onward, pinkroot became one of the
chief deworming herbs used in North America
and Europe.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Pinkroot is used
today solely to expel intestinal worms—particularly
tapeworms and roundworms. It is prescribed with
other herbs such as senna (Cassia senna, p. 75) and
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212) to ensure the
elimination of both the worms and the root itself,
which is potentially toxic if it is absorbed through
the gut.

Related Species Several Spigelia species act as
worm-expelling herbs, for example S. flemmingania,
native to Brazil, and S. anthelmia, native to the
Caribbean, Venezuela, and Colombia. S. anthelmia
also contains isoquinoline alkaloids and is used
in the treatment of heart disease.

O Caution Only use pinkroot with the
supervision of a professional practitioner.

Stachys officinalis

syn. S. betonica (Lamiaceae)

Betony

Description Mat-forming perennial growing
to a height of 2 ft (60 cm). Has toothed elliptical
leaves and spikes of pink or white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Betony grows
throughout most of Europe, and occurs in Asia
as far east as the Caucasus, where it is found in
meadows, heathland, and hilly areas. The aerial
parts are collected when the plant is in flower
during early summer.

Betony is an age-old headache remedy. Its name may
derive from the Celtic for “good head.”

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Betony contains alkaloids
(including stachydrine and betonicine), as well as
phenolic compounds, betaine, choline, and tannins.
History & Folklore Betony has been regarded
as a panacea since classical times, even attributed
with the ability to ward off evil spirits. Antonius
Musa, physician to Emperor Augustus (63 bce-14
ce), claimed that betony would cure 47 different
illnesses. The herb has always been particularly
valued as a remedy for headaches.

Medicinal Actions & Uses No longer
regarded as a panacea, betony nevertheless has real
value as a remedy for headaches and facial pain. The
plant is also mildly sedative, relieving nervous stress
and tension. In British herbal medicine, betony is
thought to improve nervous function and to counter
overactivity. It is taken to treat “frayed nerves,”
premenstrual complaints, poor memory, and
tension. The plant has astringent properties, and in
combination with other herbs, such as comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, p. 138) and linden flowers
(7/7/d species, p. 277), it is effective against sinus
headaches and congestion. Betony may be taken

alone or with yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56)
to help staunch nosebleeds. Betony is also mildly
bitter. It stimulates the digestive system and the
liver, and has an overall tonic effect on the body.
Caution Do not take betony if you are pregnant.

Stellaria media (Caryophyllaceae)

Chickweed

Description Sprawling perennial growing to
about 6 in (15 cm). Has hairy stems, oval leaves,
and starlike white flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and Asia, chickweed is now found in most regions
of the world. It grows easily in wasteground, and is
generally regarded as a troublesome weed. The
plant is harvested in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Chickweed contains triterpenoid
saponins, coumarins, flavonoids, carboxylic acids,
and vitamin C. The saponins may account for the
herb’s ability to help reduce itchiness.

History & Folklore Dioscorides, a Greek
physician writing in the I st century ce, described
chickweed’s applications as follows: “it [chickweed]
may usefully be applied with corn meal for
inflammation of the eyes.

The juice may also

Chickweed can help to soothe
eczema and other skin conditions.

SWERTIA C H I RATA

be introduced into the ear in earache.” Apart from
its medicinal uses, chickweed is a tasty and
nutritious vegetable.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Chickweed is
chiefly used to treat irritated skin, being applied
as juice, poultice, ointment, or cream. In certain
cases, chickweed may soothe severe itchiness
where all other remedies have failed. It is often
used to relieve eczema, varicose ulcers, and nettle
rash (hives). An infusion of the fresh or dried
plant may be added to a bath, where the herb’s
emollient properties will help to reduce
inflammation—in rheumatic joints, for example—
and encourage tissue repair. Chickweed may also
be taken internally to treat chest ailments. There
is some suggestion that chickweed has an
antiobesity action.

Cautions If taken in excessive doses, chickweed
may cause diarrhea and vomiting. Do not take
during pregnancy.

Self-help Uses Eczema, p. 300; Diaper rash
& inflamed skin rashes, p. 3 18; Nettle rash, p. 303.

Stillingia sylvatica (Euphorbiaceae)

Queen’s Delight

Description Perennial growing to 1.2 m (4 ft).

Has leathery leaves, yellow flowers without petals,
and 3-lobed fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Queens delight is
native to the southeastern U.S., where it prefers
sandy soils. The root is unearthed in autumn.

Part Used Root.

Constituents Queen’s delight contains
diterpenes, fixed oil, volatile oil, resin, and
tannins. The fresh root is considered to
be most active.

History & Folklore Queen’s delight
was used by Native Americans as a
purgative, a treatment for skin eruptions,
and a remedy for venereal disease.

Creek women who had just
given birth took a decoction
of the root or were bathed with
an infusion. Queen’s delight was
included in the Pharmacopoeia of
the United States from 183 I to 1926,

Medicinal Actions & Uses Queen s
delight appears to promote general detoxification,

It is taken internally to help clear constipation,
boils, weeping eczema, and scrofula (tubercular
infection of the lymph glands of the neck). The
root is also taken to treat bronchitis and throat
infection. Externally, it is applied as a lotion to A
hemorrhoids, eczema, and psoriasis.

O Cautions Use only under professional
supervision. Queen’s delight is emetic and
purgative in large doses.

Strychnos nux-vomica
(Loganiaceae)

Nux Vomica

Description Evergreen tree growing to
49 ft (15 m). Has glossy oval leaves, tubular
white flowers, and yellow fruit containing 5-8
disk-shaped seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Nux vomica is native
to Southeast Asia. It grows wild and is cultivated
commercially. The seeds are gathered when mature.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents Nux vomica contains 3% indole
alkaloids (predominantly strychnine, with many
others), loganin, chlorgenic acid, and fixed oil.
Strychnine is a lethal poison, producing intense
muscle spasms.

History & Folklore Nux vomica seeds
were first brought to Europe in the 15th century,
probably as a poison for game and rodents. In
1640, the seeds were first used in European
medicine, as a stimulant.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though rarely
used internally due to its toxicity, nux vomica
can be an effective nervous system stimulant,
particularly in the elderly. In Chinese herbal
medicine the seeds are used externally to relieve
pain, to treat various types of tumors, and to
relieve paralysis, including Bell’s palsy (facial
paralysis). Nux vomica is a common
homeopathic remedy prescribed
mainly for digestive problems,
sensitivity to cold, irritability,
and melancholia.

Nux vomica is used in
homeopathic preparations.

Research In a Chinese clinical trial, a paste
made from nux vomica seeds was applied to
15,000 patients with Bell’s palsy. The treatment
was reported to have been effective in more
than 80% of the cases.

Related Species Many Strychnos species are
equally potent and have been used as arrow poisons.
© Cautions Take nux vomica only in
homeopathic preparations. This herb and strychnine
are subject to legal restrictions in most countries.

Styrax benzoin (Styraceae)

Benzoin Gum

Description Shrubby deciduous tree growing to
30 ft (9 m). Has pointed oval leaves and clusters of
white, fragrant, bell-shaped flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Southeast
Asia, benzoin grows in tropical rainforests. It is
also cultivated for its gum, which exudes from
incisions made in the bark of trees that are at
least 7 years old.

Part Used Gum.

Constituents Benzoin gum contains variable
quantities of cinnamic, benzoic, and sumaresinolic
acid esters, free acids (such as benzoic acid),
benzaldehyde, and vanillin.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Benzoin gum is
strongly antiseptic and astringent. It may be used
externally on wounds and ulcers to tighten and
disinfect the affected tissue. When taken internally,
benzoin gum acts to settle cramping, to stimulate
coughing, and to disinfect the urinary tract. Benzoin
gum is an ingredient of Friar’s Balsam, an antiseptic
and expectorant steam inhalation for sore throats,
head and chest colds, asthma, and bronchitis.

Swertia chirata (Gentianiaceae)

Chiretta,

Chirayata (EHindi)

Description Annual, growing to about 3 ft
(I m), with a much-branched stem, smooth,
pointed, lance-shaped leaves, and numerous
purple-tinged, pale green flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Chiretta grows at
high altitudes in northern India and Nepal. The
whole herb is harvested while in flower.

Parts Used Whole herb.

Constituents Chiretta contains xanthones,
bitter iridoids (including amarogentin), alkaloids,
and flavones.

History & Folklore Chiretta was a
common treatment for malaria, until Peruvian
bark (Cinchona spp., p. 83) became readily
available in Europe and Asia.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

SYMPLOCARPUS F0ETIDUS

Medicinal Actions & Uses A strongly bitter
herb, chiretta is powerful medicine for a weak
stomach, especially when linked to nausea,
indigestion, and bloating. It is taken in small,
frequent doses to improve appetite and digestive
function. For hiccups, small, frequent doses are
taken with honey. Like most bitters it reduces fever,
cooling the body and increasing blood flow to the
liver. In Ayurvedic medicine the herb is used for
pitta (fire) conditions, and is best known as the
major herb in mahasudarshana churna —a standard
mixture of more than 50 herbs prescribed for
fevers such as malaria, liver problems, gallstones,
and indigestion. Recently it has been used with
other herbs to treat allergies.

Research The xanthones are thought to be
antituberculous and antimalarial. Amarogentin
has a protective action on the liver.

Caution Avoid in digestive hyperacidity.

Symplocarpus foetidus (Araceae)

Skunk Cabbage

Description Unpleasant-smelling perennial
plant growing to 30 in (75 cm). Has a thick
tuberous rootstock, cabbage-like leaves, and
small purple flowers on a hooded spike.

Skunk cabbage is a foul-smelling plant with a powerful
expectorant action.

274

Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern
North America, skunk cabbage thrives in meadows,
swamps, and marshes. The root and rhizome are
collected in autumn or early spring.

Parts Used Root, rhizome.

Constituents Skunk cabbage contains a volatile
oil, serotonin (5HT), and resins.

History & Folklore The Winnebago and
Dakota peoples used the expectorant and
antispasmodic skunk cabbage root to treat asthma

and bronchitis. The root was also employed as
a poultice to draw splinters and thorns, to heal
wounds, and to relieve headaches. It was much
used in America in the 19th century.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Skunk cabbage
continues to be used primarily as an expectorant,
treating cases of asthma, bronchitis, and whooping
cough. It is also taken for upper respiratory
problems such as nasal congestion and hayfever.
Less commonly, skunk cabbage is used as a
treatment for epilepsy, headaches, vertigo, and
rheumatic problems, and to stop bleeding.
Cautions Handling fresh skunk cabbage may
cause the skin to blister. Excessive doses can bring
on nausea and vomiting, headaches, and dizziness.

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Jambul

Description Evergreen tree growing to 33 ft
(10 m). Has lance-shaped leaves and green-yellow
flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation A native of southern
Asia and Australia, jambul is now also found in
tropical regions of Africa. The tree is cultivated
commercially for its fruit and is propagated from
seed or semiripe cuttings in summer. It requires
well-drained soil and plenty of sun. The fruit is
harvested when ripe.

Parts Used Fresh and dried fruit, seeds.
Constituents Jambul contains triterpenes,
anthocyanins, flavonoids, and volatile oil.

History & Folklore Jambul is a typical
example of a medicinal plant that is both food
and medicine. The fruit when ripe has the scent
and taste of a ripe apricot and is eaten as a
preserve. While both fruit and seed have a
tonic and astringent effect on the digestion,
the seeds have long traditional use in Ayurveda
as a preventative and treatment for diabetes.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Following
traditional use, jambul continues to be employed
for a wide variety of health problems. The
powdered seed is commonly taken to treat
diabetes and the frequent urination that
accompanies it, as well as a remedy for mouth
ulcers, stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery, and
worms. Case reports over the last 100 years and
more recent pharmacological research supports
the use of jambul for diabetes and poor blood
glucose control. It is thought to lower blood-sugar
levels by about 30%.

Related Species Many other closely related
species have notable therapeutic activity. Cloves
(Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97) are taken for digestive
problems and to treat infection. Syzygium gerrardii
from South Africa and Luma chequen from Chile
are used to treat coughs and congestion.

Tama rind us indica (Fabaceae)

Tamarind

Description Evergreen tree growing to 80 ft
(25 m). Has fine compound leaves, clusters of
orange-yellow flowers, and brittle gray-brown
seed pods (fruit) containing up to 12 round seeds.
Habitat & Cultivation While native to
Madagascar, the tamarind is now cultivated in
many of the world’s tropical regions, including
the Caribbean, India, Southeast Asia, and China.
Parts Used Fruit, leaves, seeds.

Constituents Tamarind contains
16-18% plant acids (including
nicotinic acid—vitamin B 3 ), a volatile
oil (with geranial, geraniol, and
limonene), sugars, pectin, 0.8%
potassium, and fats. Vitamin C
was formerly believed to be among
the constituents of tamarind, but
this is now being disputed.

History & Folklore Sailors
ate tamarind fruit as a nourishing
complement to their otherwise
starchy diet, in the belief that
eating the fruit would prevent
scurvy. However, it appears that tamarind does
not in fact contain vitamin C. Tamarind is a major
ingredient in many chutneys and condiments,
notably Worcestershire sauce.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Tamarind is
a wholesome and cleansing fruit that improves
digestion, relieves gas, soothes sore throats,
and acts as a mild laxative. However, mixed with
cumin and sugar, tamarind is also prescribed as a
treatment for dysentery. It is given for loss of
appetite and nausea, and as a stomach tonic and
mild laxative. It may help with nausea and vomiting
in pregnancy. In southern India, tamarind soup is
taken to treat colds and other ailments that
produce excessive phlegm. In Chinese medicine,
it is considered a cooling herb, appropriate for
treating “summer heat.” The fruit is also given
for loss of appetite, for nausea and vomiting in
pregnancy, and for constipation. The seeds’
traditional use as an antivenin in snake bite has
been partly confirmed in laboratory research.
Self-help Use Sore throats, p. 3 I I

Tanacetum vulgare (Asteraceae)

Tansy

Description Strongly aromatic perennial
growing to 3 ft (I m). Has an erect stem, feathery
compound leaves, and clusters of yellow disk¬
shaped flowerheads.

Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout
temperate zones in the northern hemisphere,

TERMINALIA C H E B U LA

tansy grows in open areas, alongside roads, and
close to water. The flowering tops are collected as
the flowers open in summer.

Parts Used Flowering tops.

Constituents Tansy contains a volatile oil, which
includes significant levels of thujone and camphor,
sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, and resin. The
volatile oil strongly induces menstruation.

History & Folklore While it is not
mentioned in surviving classical texts, tansy
was described by medieval herbalists, notably
St. Hildegard of Bingen (12th century). Ever since
that time, tansy has been used most commonly as
a worm-expelling plant. In England, tansy puddings
were consumed during Lent.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Tansy is little
used today because of its potential toxicity. When
the plant is taken, it is chiefly in order to expel
intestinal worms, and, to a lesser degree, to help
stimulate menstrual bleeding. Tansy may be used
externally to kill scabies, fleas, and lice, but even
external application of tansy preparations carries
the risk of toxicity.

OC au tions Use only under professional
supervision. Tansy is possibly unsafe for internal
and external use, and should never be taken
during pregnancy. The plant, and especially its
essential oil, are subject to legal restrictions in
some countries.

Taxus baccata (Taxaceae)

Yew

Description Slow-growing evergreen tree
reaching 80 ft (25 m) in height. Has rust-red bark
and flattened, dark green needle-like leaves. The
female trees produce fleshy red cup-like fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Yew grows throughout
northern temperate zones. More often found in
cultivation than in the wild, it prefers lime-rich soil.
The leaves are gathered in spring.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Yew contains a mixture of alkaloids
known astaxine, and also diterpenes (including
taxol in some varieties), lignans, tannin, and resin.
History & Folklore The yew tree was sacred
to the Druids, who are believed to have considered
it an emblem of immortality. The Druids planted
yews in holy sites, a practice that continued with the
coming of Christianity. Many medieval churchyards
contain ancient yews, some thought to be over
2,000 years old. In the Middle Ages, the best
longbows were made from yew wood, as were
magic wands.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though yew has
been used in small doses to treat rheumatic and
urinary problems, its extreme toxicity makes it an
unsafe medicinal plant.

Research Taxol inhibits cell division, and has thus
been extensively researched for its use as an anti¬
cancer drug. Taxol is most commonly found in the
Pacific yew (I brevifolia ), though some varieties of

T. baccata also contain the substance. Studies
have been conducted since the 1980s in search
of potential cancer treatments.

@ Caution Yew is extremely toxic. Do not take
under any circumstances.

Terminalia belerica
(Combretaceae)

Beleric Myrobalan

Description Evergreen tree with clusters of
oval leaves, spikes of small greenish unpleasant¬
smelling flowers, and hairy brown fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Beleric myrobalan
is native to India, Malaysia, and the Philippines. It is
found in forests and is cultivated for its astringent
fruit, which is gathered both immature and ripe.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents The fruit contains tannins
and anthraquinones.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Beleric myrobalan
fruit is astringent, tonic, and laxative. It is principally
employed as a treatment for digestive and
respiratory problems. In Indian herbal medicine,
the ripe fruit is taken for diarrhea and indigestion,
and the unripe fruit is used as a laxative for chronic
constipation. It forms part of the classic Ayurvedic
Triphala formula, chiefly used as a bowel tonic.
Beleric myrobalan is also often used to treat upper
respiratory tract infections that cause symptoms
of sore throats, hoarseness, and coughs.

Related Species Many Terminalia species are
used to make astringent remedies, and also for
their timber. See chebulic myrobalan (T chebula,
following entry).

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Terminalia chebula
(Combretaceae)

Chebulic Myrobalan

Description Evergreen tree growing to 65 ft
(20 m). Has egg-shaped leaves, white flowers in
terminal spikes, and small, 5-ribbed fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Central
Asia and India, chebulic myrobalan is found
throughout Iran, Pakistan, and India. The fruit
is collected when ripe.

Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Chebulic myrobalan contains
triterpenes, polyphenols, a coumarin (chebulic
acid), resin, and fixed oil.

History & Folklore Chebulic myrobalan has
been used in Indian medicine for several thousand
years, and the fruit has long been considered a
prime remedy for all manner of digestive problems.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

THEOEROMA CACAO

Medicinal Actions & Uses Laxative and
astringent, the fruit gently improves bowel regularity
without excessively irritating the colon. It forms part
of the classic Ayurvedic Triphala formula, used
chiefly as a bowel tonic. Like Chinese rhubarb
(Rheum polmatum, p. 126), chebulic myrobalan may
be used as a treatment for diarrhea and dysentery.
The fruit’s tannins protect the gut wall from
irritation and infection, and tend to reduce intestinal
secretions. Likewise, the fruit helps to counter acidic
indigestion and heartburn. A decoction of chebulic
myrobalan may be used as a gargle and mouthwash,
as a lotion for sore and inflamed eyes, and as a
douche for vaginitis and excessive vaginal discharge.
The fruit has been also shown to have liver-
protective and antidiabetic properties.

Caution Do not take chebulic myrobalan
during pregnancy.

Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae)

Cacao,

Cocoa

Description Evergreen tree growing to 26 ft
(8 m). Has pale brown bark, glossy oval leaves,
clusters of small yellow flowers, and large, pear-
shaped, red-yellow seed pods.

Cacao is cultivated in tropical regions around the world.
The seed pulp is the source of cocoa.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents The unprocessed seed pulp
contains high levels of polyphenols (mostly
proantocyanidins and catechins), xanthines
(including caffeine), a fixed oil, and many
constituents responsible for chocolate’s flavor. Due
to fermentation and the processing involved,
chocolate has significantly reduced levels of
polyphenols. Minute quantities of endorphins
(powerful painkillers that occur naturally within
the body) are also present in cacao.

History & Folklore The word “chocolate”
derives from chocolatl, the name given to this
tree by the Aztecs. In 1720, Cotton Mather, an
American preacher and natural historian, praised
cacao, writing that the plant “supplies the Indian
with bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil,
honey, sugar, needles, thread, linen, clothes, caps,
spoons, besoms, baskets, paper, and nails; timber,
coverings for their houses; masts, sails, cordage for
their vessels; and medicine for their diseases; and
what can be desired more?”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Though cacao is
most often used as a food, it also has therapeutic
value as a nervous system stimulant. In Central
America and the Caribbean, the seeds are taken
as a heart and kidney tonic. The plant may be used
to treat angina, and as a diuretic. Cacao butter (the
fixed oil) makes a good lip salve and is often used
as a base for suppositories and pessaries.
Research The potent mix of polyphenols in the
unprocessed seed pulp has been the main focus of
research into cacao. These have a protective
activity on the heart and blood vessels, particularly
supporting the capillaries or microcirculation.
Cacao consumption is linked with lower blood
pressure and cholesterol levels, as well as a
reduced risk of coronary heart disease and stroke.
It also appears to have an antidiabetic activity,
stimulating the pancreas to regulate blood sugar
levels more effectively. Other potential uses of
cacao that have been investigated include the
prevention of tooth decay, as an aid to weight loss,
as a cancer-preventative food within the diet, and
as a treatment for chronic fatigue.

Thuja occidentalis (Cupressaceae)

Arborvitae

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Mexico
and Central America, cacao is now a major crop
throughout the tropics. The seed pods are harvested
several times a year and are cut directly from the
trunk of the tree (where they grow). One pod
contains up to 50 beans, with roughly 900 weighing
2% lb (I kg). According to the World Cocoa
Foundation, world production of cacao in 2012
was more than 3.8 million tons.

Description Evergreen tree growing to 33 ft
(10 m). Has scale-like leaves, male and female
flowers, and small, egg-shaped cones.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the
northeastern U.S. and also known as white cedar;
arborvitae flourishes in wet, marshy ground and along
riverbanks. It has become a popular ornamental tree
in Europe. The leaves are gathered in summer
Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Arborvitae contains a volatile
oil (up to 60% thujone), coumarins, flavonoids
(including procyanidin), tannins, and polysaccharides.
History & Folklore Many Native American
peoples prized arbor-vitae as a medicine for fever,
headaches, coughs, swollen hands, and rheumatic
problems. The herb was burned as a smudge
(smoky fire) for its scent and to ward off evil
spirits. The 19th-century Eclectic herbalists
used arbor-vitae as a remedy for bronchitis,
rheumatism, and uterine cancer. Arborvitae has
also been used to treat the side-effects of the
smallpox vaccination.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Arborvitae has
an established antiviral activity. It is most often used
to treat warts and polyps, being prescribed both
internally and externally for these conditions. It is
also used as part of a regime for treating cancer—
especially cancer of the uterus. Arborvitae makes
an effective expectorant and anti-congestion
remedy, and may be used to treat acute bronchitis
and other respiratory infections. It induces
menstruation and can be taken to
bring on delayed periods, though
this use is inadvisable if menstrual
pain is severe. Arborvitae is
diuretic and is used to treat
acute cystitis and bed-wetting
in children. Extracts of the
herb may be painted on
painful joints or muscles as a
counterirritant, improving
local blood supply and easing
pain and stiffness. Arborvitae twig

O Cautions Take only under professional
supervision. Do not take arborvitae during
pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Self-help Use Warts, p. 304.

Thymus serpyllum (Lamiaceae)

Wild Thyme

Description Tuft-forming evergreen herb
growing to a height of 3 in (7 cm). Has square
stems, small aromatic oval leaves, and spikes of
bright mauve flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
thyme prefers heaths, moorland, and barren places.
The herb is collected when in flower in summer.
Parts Used Flowering tops.

Constituents Wild thyme contains a volatile oil
(with thymol, carvacrol and linalool), flavonoids,
caffeic acid, tannins, and resin. The volatile oil’s
properties are similar to, but less potent than,
those of thyme oil (from Thymus vulgaris, p. 143).
History & Folklore The 17th-century
herbalist Nicholas Culpeper advised taking wild
thyme to treat internal bleeding, coughing, and

TRIGONELLA FOENUM-GRAEGUM

vomiting. He noted that “it comforts and
strengthens the head, stomach, reins [ureters] and
womb, expels wind and breaks the stone.” Carolus
Linnaeus, the 18th-century Swedish naturalist, used
the plant to treat headaches and hangovers.
Medicinal Actions & Uses Like its close
relative thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), wild thyme
is antiseptic and antifungal. It may be taken as an
infusion or syrup to treat flu and colds, sore
throats, coughs, whooping cough, chest infections,
and bronchitis. Wild thyme has anticongestion
properties and helps clear a stuffy nose, sinusitis,
ear congestion, and related complaints. It has been
used to expel threadworms and roundworms in
children, and is used to settle gas and colic. Wild
thyme’s antispasmodic action makes it useful in
relieving period pain. Externally, it may be applied
as a poultice to treat mastitis (inflammation of the
breast), and an infusion may be used as a wash to
help heal wounds and ulcers. Wild thyme is also
used in herbal baths and pillows.

Related Species See thyme (T vulgaris, p. 143).
Caution For worms in children, use only under
professional supervision.

Tilia spp. (Tiliaceae)

Linden,

Lime

Description Deciduous trees growing to a
height of 100 ft (30 m), with smooth gray bark,
heart-shaped leaves, and clusters of pale yellow
flowers with winglike bracts.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
linden is found in the wild, but is also much planted
in gardens and along roads. The flowers are

Parts Used Flowers
and bracts.

Constituents Linden
contains flavonoids
(especially quercetin and
kaempferol), caffeic and
other acids, mucilage
(about 3%), tannins, volatile
oil (0.02%-0.1 %), and traces
of benzodiazepine-like
compounds. The flavonoids
improve circulation.
History & Folklore
Greek myth recounts how
Philyra, a nymph, was
raped by the god Cronus
in the guise of a horse,
and eventually gave birth
to the famed centaur,
Chiron. Philyra was so
devastated that she

collected in summer.

■'v

Linden flowers from
several species,
including Tilia
europaea, are used
in herbal medicine.

begged the gods not to leave her amongst mortals.
The gods granted her wish by transforming her
into a linden tree.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Linden is an
antispasmodic, sweat-inducing, and sedative
remedy. It relieves tension and sinus headaches,
helping to calm the mind and allow easy sleep.
Linden is an excellent remedy for stress and panic,
and is used specifically to treat nervous palpitations.
The flowers bring relief to colds and flu by
reducing nasal congestion and soothing fever.

Linden flowers are commonly taken to lower high
blood pressure, particularly when there are
emotional factors involved. The flowers are used
over the longterm to treat high systolic blood
pressure associated with arteriosclerosis. Because
of their emollient quality, linden flowers are used in
France to make a lotion for itchy skin.

Trifolium pratense (Fabaceae)

Red Clover

Description Perennial herb growing to 16 in
(40 cm). Has a hairy upright stem, leaves with 3 (on
rarely, 4) oval leaflets with a white crescent marking,
and pink to purple egg-shaped flowerheads.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and Asia, and naturalized in North America and
Australia, red clover is widely cultivated for hay
and as a nitrogen-fixing crop. The flowerheads
are collected when newly opened in summer.
Parts Used Flowerheads.

Constituents Red clover contains volatile
oil, including benzyl alcohol and methyl salicylate,
isoflavones, coumarins, and cyanogenic glycosides.
The isoflavones occur at relatively high levels and
are phytoestrogenic. The isolated isoflavones are
marketed as a treatment for menopausal problems.
History & Folklore This herb has traditionally
been used to treat breast cancer. A concentrated
decoction was applied to the site of the tumor in
order to encourage it to grow outward and clear
the body.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Red clover is
used to treat skin conditions, normally in
combination with other purifying herbs such as
burdock (Arctium lappa, p. 65) and yellow dock
(Rumex crispus, p. 264). It is also expectorant and
may be used for spasmodic coughs. Red clover’s
significant phytoestrogenic activity has led to
increasing use of the herb to relieve menopausal
symptoms. In most cases it will be preferable to
use extracts of red clover flowers ratherthan the
isoflavones on their own.

Research The isoflavones have an established
phytoestrogenic activity. Red clover isoflavones
have been shown to have not only therapeutic use
during menopause, helping to reduce the impact of

falling estrogen levels, but also to exert a protective
effect on the heart and circulation in menopausal
women with low estrogen levels. Early-stage
research points to the isoflavones countering bone
loss, making them potentially of use in
osteoporosis. Due to the isoflavones’ ability to
“compete” with the body’s own estrogen, it is now
thought that red clover may be helpful in both
preventing and treating breast cancer.

Red clover is a common wayside plant, but it is also
cultivated as a fodder crop.

Trigonella foenum-graecum
(Fabaceae)

Fenugreek

Description Strongly aromatic annual
growing to about 32 in (80 cm). Has trifoliate
leaves, yellowish-white pealike flowers, and
sickle-shaped pods.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North Africa
and countries borderingthe eastern Mediterranean,
fenugreek grows in open areas and is widely
cultivated, notably in India. The seeds are collected
during the autumn months.

Parts Used Seeds.

Constituents Fenugreek contains a volatile oil,
alkaloids (including trigonelline), saponins (based
on diosgenin), flavonoids, mucilage (about 27%),
protein (about 25%), fixed oil (approximately 8%),
vitamins A, B, and C, and minerals.

History & Folklore The Egyptian Ebers
papyrus, which dates from c. 1 500 bce, records a
prescription for burns that includes fenugreek. The
seeds were also used in ancient Egypt to induce
childbirth. In the 5th century bce the Greek
physician Hippocrates considered fenugreek to be
a valuable soothing herb. Dioscorides, writing in the
I st century ce, recommended fenugreek as a

277

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

TRILLIUM ERECT U M

remedy for all manner of gynecological problems,
including infection of the uterus and inflammation
of the vagina and vulva.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Fenugreek is much
used in herbal medicine in North Africa, the Middle
East, and India, being esteemed as a remedy for
a wide variety of conditions. The nourishing
seeds are given during
convalescence and to
encourage weight gain,
especially in anorexia.

They are also helpful in
lowering fever, with some
authorities comparing
their ability to that of quinine.

The seeds’ soothing effect makes them of value
in treating gastritis and gastric ulcers. They are used
to induce childbirth and to increase breast-milk
production. Fenugreek is also thought to be
antidiabetic and to lower blood cholesterol levels.
Externally, the seeds may be applied as a paste to
treat abscesses, boils, ulcers, and burns, or used as
a douche for excessive vaginal discharge.
Research Research indicates that fenugreek seed
(preferably powdered) can prove effective in
controlling insulin resistance and late-onset diabetes.
The seeds help to stabilize blood-sugar levels,
though the recommended dosage of seed required
is unclear. The seeds also lower blood cholesterol
levels. Other potential uses for the seeds include
cramping period pains, polycystic ovary syndrome
(PCOS), and Parkinson’s disease. An Iranian clinical
trial in 2014 found that Mo oz (2-3 g) of powdered
seed helped to reduce menstrual cramps.
Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

intermenstrual bleeding, helping to reduce blood
flow. It is also used to treat bleeding associated
with uterine fibroids. Bethroot may also be taken
for bleeding within the urinary tubules and, less
commonly, for the coughing up of blood. It remains
a valuable herb in facilitating childbirth. A douche
of bethroot is useful for excessive vaginal discharge
and yeast infections.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy except
under professional supervision.

Tropaeolum majus
(Tropaeolaceae)

Nasturtium

Description Climbing annual growing to 10 ft
(3m). Has straggling stems, rounded leaves, and
orange to yellow trumpet-shaped flowers with a
long spur.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Peru,
nasturtiums flourish in sunny sites. They are
grown as an ornamental and as a salad herb.

All parts of the plant are harvested in summer.
Parts Used Flowers, leaves, seeds.
Constituents Nasturtiums contain
glucosinolates, sulphur glycosides, glucotropaeolin,
flavonoids, spilantolic acid, and iodide.
Glucotropaeolin is converted into mustard oils by
gut bacteria and acts as an antibiotic within the
urinary and respiratory systems.

History & Folklore The nasturtium has long
been used in Andean herbal medicine as a
disinfectant and wound-healing herb, and as an
expectorant to relieve chest conditions.

Fenugreek seeds

Trillium erectum (Liliaceae)

Bethroot

278

Description Attractive perennial with an erect
stem growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has 3 wavy leaves
and an unpleasant-smelling, 3-petaled, red to
yellow flower.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to North
America, bethroot grows in shady areas in
woodlands. The rhizome is usually unearthed
after the leaves have fallen in autumn.

Part Used Rhizome.

Constituents Bethroot contains steroidal
saponins (such as trillin), tannin, resin, fixed oil,
and a trace of volatile oil.

History & Folklore Various Trillium species
were used by Native Americans to aid childbirth,
to treat irregular menstrual periods, period pain
and excessive vaginal discharge, and, as a poultice,
to soothe sore nipples.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Bethroot is a
valuable remedy for heavy menstrual or

Medicinal Actions & Uses All parts of
the nasturtium appear to have antibiotic activity.
An infusion of the leaves may be used to
increase resistance to bacterial infections and to
clear nasal and bronchial congestion—apparently
the remedy both reduces congestion formation
and stimulates the clearing and coughing up of
phlegm. It can also prove useful in bacterial cystitis
and it makes an effective antiseptic wash for
external application.The juice of the plant has
been taken internally for the treatment of
scrofula (tubercular infection of the lymph nodes).
The piquant-tasting leaves and flowers (and juice)
of nasturtium are high in vitamin C, and make a
good salad vegetable, while the ground seeds have
purgative properties.

Tsuga canadensis (Pinaceae)

Canada FHemlock

Description Evergreen tree growing to 100 ft
(30 m). Has reddish-brown bark, short narrow
needle leaves, and small male and female cones.

Habitat & Cultivation Canada hemlock is
native to eastern parts of North America, growing
in woodland and marshy sites. The bark is collected
from mature trees throughout the year.

Part Used Bark.

Constituents Canada hemlock contains volatile
oil (with alpha-pinene, bornyl acetate, and
cadinene), 10-14% tannins, and resin.

History & Folklore Native Americans may
have given Canada hemlock to the explorer
Jacques Cartier in 1535. He and his crew, exploring
the St. Lawrence river, had fallen sick with scurvy,
but all made a quick recovery upon taking a
decoction of leaves and bark. Many Native
American peoples used the bark to treat wounds.
Medicinal Actions & Uses The bark
of Canada hemlock is astringent and antiseptic.

A decoction may be taken to treat diarrhea,
colitis, diverticulitis, and cystitis. Externally, Canada
hemlock can be employed as a douche to treat
excessive vaginal discharge, yeast infection, and a
prolapsed uterus; as a mouthwash and gargle for
gingivitis and sore throats; or as a wash to cleanse
and tighten wounds.

Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae)

Coltsfoot

Description Perennial herb growing to 12 in
(30 m). Has flowering stems with purple scales,
yellow-gold flowers, and heart-shaped leaves.

Habitat & Cultivation Indigenous to
Europe and northern Asia, and naturalized in

TYPHA ANGUSTIFOLIA

North America, coltsfoot is a common plant
often found along roadsides and on verges and
in open areas. The flowers are gathered in late
winter, the leaves in summer.

Parts Used Leaves, flowers.

Constituents Coltsfoot contains flavonoids,
about 8% mucilage (polysaccharides), 10% tannins,
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, vitamin C, and zinc. The
pyrrolizidine alkaloids may have atoxic effect
on the liver, but are largely destroyed when
the parts are boiled to make a decoction.

The polysaccharides are anti-inflammatory
and immunostimulant. The flavonoids are
anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic.

History & Folklore For at least 2,500 years,
coltsfoot has been taken as a cough remedy
and smoked as a means to ease breathing.
Dioscorides, a Greek physician of the I st century ce,
recommended it for dry coughs, and “for those
who are unable to breathe except standing upright.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses An effective
demulcent and expectorant herb, coltsfoot is
one of the most popular European remedies for
treating chest problems. In Europe, the leaves are
preferred to the flowers (which contain higher
amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids), but in China
the flowers are preferred. Both parts of the plant
are taken as a decoction for chest conditions.
When used as a syrup or a medicinal cigarette,
coltsfoot relieves asthma. This herb is used as a
specific treatment for spasmodic coughs. It is
particularly effective when used in combination
with licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101), thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), and wild cherry (Prunus
serotina, p. 257).

Research Extracts of the whole plant have been
shown to increase immune resistance. In a Chinese
trial involving 36 patients
suffering from bronchial
asthma, 75% showed
some improvement
after treatment, but
the antiasthmatic
effect was short-lived.

Cautions Do not use
coltsfoot flowers. Do
not take the leaves
for more than 3-4
weeks at a time.

Do not take coltsfoot
during pregnancy or
while breastfeeding.

The herb is not suitable
for children under 6.

Coltsfoot is subject to
legal restrictions in
some countries.

Coltsfoot has long been used
as a remedy for coughs.

Tylophora asmatica (Asclepidaceae)

Asmatica,

Indian Lobelia

Description Perennial twining climber with
lance-shaped leaves and greenish flowers
producing many flat seeds.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian
subcontinent, asmatica grows wild on the plains
of India. The leaves are gathered when the plant
is in flower.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Asmatica contains alkaloids
(including tylophorine), flavonoids, sterols, and
tannins. Tylophorine has anti-inflammatory and
antitumor properties.

History & Folklore Asmatica has long been
used in Ayurvedic medicine to induce vomiting
and expectoration, and to treat dysentery and
rheumatic conditions.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Considered a
specific remedy for asthma, asmatica may relieve
symptoms for up to 3 months. It is also beneficial
in cases of hay fever, and is prescribed for acute
allergic problems such as eczema and hives. It
holds potential as a treatment for chronic fatigue
syndrome and other immune system disorders.
Asmatica may relieve rheumatoid arthritis, and
may also be of value in the treatment of cancer.
Research Extensive laboratory and clinical
research in India has established that asmatica
is an effective remedy for asthma. In the 1970s,
a number of clinical trials showed that a majority
of asthmatic patients taking the herb for just
6 days gained relief from asthma for up to a
further 12 weeks. However, subsequent studies
have failed to reproduce these results. The
leaves produce side-effects including nausea
and vomiting.

O Caution Take asmatica only under
professional supervision.

Typha angustifolia (Typhaceae)

Cattail,

Pu Huang (Chinese)

Description Stout upright plant growing to a
height of 6 'A ft (2 m). Has long, flat, narrow leaves
rising parallel to the stem, a distinctive brown
cylindrical head of female flowers, and straw-
colored male flowers immediately above.
Habitat & Cultivation Cattail flourishes
in marshes, swamps, and other freshwater sites
in both temperate and tropical zones, and is
cultivated. The pollen is shaken off the plant
while it is in bloom.

Part Used Pollen.

Constituents Cattail contains isorhamnetin,
pentacosane, and sterols.

History & Folklore The pollen is highly
inflammable and has been used in the manufacture
of fireworks. The root is edible and has been eaten
in times of famine. The young shoots can be eaten
raw or cooked in spring, and are said to taste
like asparagus (Asparagus officinalis, p. 174).

Cattail or pu huang is used to staunch wounds and stop
internal bleeding.

Although “bulrushes” (the British and Irish name for
cattails) are mentioned in the Bible, it is likely the
plant being referred to is actually Cyperus papyrus.
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese herbal
medicine, the astringent pollen has been employed
chiefly to stop internal or external bleeding. The
pollen may be mixed with honey and applied to
wounds and sores, or taken orally to reduce
internal bleeding of almost any kind—for example,
nosebleeds, uterine bleeding, or blood in the urine.
The pollen is now also used in the treatment of
angina (pain in the chest or arm due to lack of
oxygen to the heart muscle). In India, the dried
pollen has been used for kidney stones, to treat
nosebleeds and internal bleeding, as well as for
painful menstruation. Cattail does not appear to
have been used as a medicine in the European
herbal tradition.

Research Chinese research suggests that cattail
pollen protects blood vessels from inflammation
and acts as an immunosuppressant.

Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

UNCARIA RHYNCOPHYLLA

Uncaria rhynchophylla (Rubiaceae)

Gou Teng

Description Climbing perennial growing to
33 ft (10 m). Has opposite lance-shaped leaves,
thorns, and composite flowerheads.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China and
Southeast Asia, gou teng is cultivated in the southern
and eastern provinces of China. The stems and
thorns are collected in autumn and winter.

Parts Used Stems, thorns.

Constituents Gou teng contains indole alkaloids,
flavonoids, triterpenoid, and polysaccharides.
History & Folklore The first recorded use of
gou teng in Chinese medicine is in the Miscellaneous
Records (c. 500 ce).

Medicinal Actions & Uses Gou teng is a
sedative and antispasmodic, and is mainly used to
ease symptoms such as tremors, seizure, spasms,
headache, and dizziness. It is also prescribed for
infantile convulsions. In Chinese herbal medicine
it “extinguishes [internal] wind [gas] and stops
tremors.” It is also used by the Chinese to reduce
high blood pressure and excess liver “fire.”
Research Chinese tests on laboratory animals
indicate that gou teng lowers blood pressure,
reduces anxiety, and has notable sedative activity.
Related Species Like gou teng, pale catechu
(U. gambler) contains a constituent that lowers
blood pressure. See also cat’s claw (U. tomentosa,
following entry).

O Caution Take gou teng only under
professional supervision.

Uncaria tomentosa (Rubiaceae)

Cat’s Claw,

Una de Gato

280

Description Climbing vine growing to 100 ft
(30 m) or more, with stems up to 8 in (20 cm)
in diameter, large, glossy leaves, and sharp hooks
(the “cat’s claws”).

Habitat & Cultivation A native of tropical
rainforests in the central and eastern Andes,
especially Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, cat’s claw
has also been found in Guatemala, Costa Rica, and
Panama. Until recently, the root bark was the part
most commonly used as medicine. However, by the
early 1990s collection from the wild threatened
the species’ survival. Only the stem bark, from
ecologically sustainable sources, should be used.
Parts Used Stem bark.

Constituents Cat’s claw contains pentacyclic
oxindole alkaloids (POA), tetracyclic oxindole
alkaloids (TOA) in one chemotype only, triterpenoid
glycosides, sterols, flavonoids, and tannins, including
epicatechin and proanthocyanidins.

History & Folklore Known by the Ashaninka
and other indigenous peoples of central Peru for
its power in regulating illness, cat’s claw has been
used since the earliest times to treat serious
illness, from asthma and diabetes to arthritis
and cancer. Native healers are able to distinguish
between what are botanically identical plants,
selecting those that have a low TOA content
and are therefore most likely to prove effective
in strengthening immunity.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Like echinacea
(Echinacea spp., p. 92), with which it combines
effectively, cat’s claw supports a weakened
immune system, and can reinvigorate the body’s
efforts to counter infection and inflammation.

The herb’s antioxidant activity also helps to
contain the widespread cellular damage that
occurs in chronic degenerative disease.

Conditions that may benefit include infections
such as chronic fatigue syndrome and HIV/AIDS;
chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid
arthritis and ulcerative colitis; and asthma.

Cat’s claw may also be taken to help prevent
cancer, particularly breast cancer, and is
useful in countering the damaging effects
of chemotherapy.

Research Investigations into the root and stem
bark have established that cat’s claw has potent
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immune-stimulant
activity. The POAs and water extracts of the bark
stimulate production of white blood cells and
nonspecific immune resistance, and appear to inhibit
tumor development and growth; extracts of the
bark are strongly anti-inflammatory and may inhibit
inflammatory gene expression. Nevertheless, the
bark’s medicinal activity probably results from the
synergistic effect of several compounds, including
the tannins. Clinical research in Peru indicates that
cat’s claw may have use in the treatment for HIV and
AIDS. Of the two types of cat’s claw, only the one
containing POAs should be used as medicine, since
the TOAs may suppress immune function. Cat’s claw
has a contraceptive activity. A small-scale clinical trial
in Brazil found that patients with advanced cancer
had more energy and some improvement in quality
of life when taking a cat’s claw extract.

Caution Avoid taking Cat’s Claw during
pregnancy and while breastfeeding.

Urginea maritima

syn. Drimia maritima (Liliaceae)

Squill

Description Perennial growing to 5 ft (1.5m)
from a large white or red bulb. Has a single
flowering stem, a rosette of large basal leaves,
and a dense spike of white flowers.

Squill contains substances
that have a strongly tonic
effect on the heart.

Habitat &
Cultivation

Native to southern
Spain, the Canary
Islands, and South Africa,
squill is cultivated in the
Mediterranean region. The
bulb of the white (but not
the red) variety is unearthed
in late summer.

Part Used Bulb.

Constituents Squill contains cardiac
glycosides (0.15-2.4% bufadienolides,
including scillaren A), flavonoids,
stigmasterol anthocyanidins, and
mucilage. The cardiac glycosides are
strongly diuretic and relatively quick¬
acting. They do not have the same cumulative
effect as those present in foxglove (Digitalis
purpurea, p. 202).

History & Folklore Squill appears in the
Egyptian Ebers papyrus (c. 1500 bce). In Greece
it was used by Pythagoras and Hippocrates in the
6th and 5th centuries bce.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Squill is a diuretic,
emetic, cardiotonic, and expectorant plant that
finds use in a wide range of conditions. It makes a
good diuretic in cases of water retention. Since its
active constituents do not accumulate to a great
degree within the body, it is a potential substitute
for foxglove in aiding a failing heart. At low dosage,
squill is an effective expectorant. At higher doses,
the herb acts as an emetic. Squill is also used in
homeopathic preparations.

O Caution Use only under professional
supervision. Squill is toxic in excessive doses.

Vaccinium macrocarpon
(Ericaceae)

Cranberry

Description Small, slender, evergreen shrub,
growing to I ft (30 cm), with oval, dark green
leaves, pink flowers, and round or slightly pear-
shaped red berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern
North America and northern Asia, cranberry

VINCA MINOR

thrives in acidic soils and in wet, boggy ground.

It is widely cultivated in the northeastern U.S.
Parts Used Berry (fruit).

Constituents Cranberry contains tannins
(catechins, proanthocyanidins, and polyphenols),
flavonoids, and vitamin C.

History & Folklore Best known for cranberry
sauce, cranberry has traditionally been taken as a
tart, acidic drink in Sweden. Cranberry was first
cultivated in Britain in 1808 by the English botanist
Joseph Banks, and in the U.S.—now the principal
grower of cranberries—in the 1840s.

Medicinal Actions & Uses A classic remedy
for urinary tract infections, cranberry can be used
both to prevent and to treat problems such as
cystitis and urethritis. Taken as berries, juice, or
extract, it will help to disinfect the urinary tubules
and may be taken for problems associated with
poor urinary flow such as enlarged prostate, as
well as bladder infections. In cases of acute infection,
cranberry is likely to work better in combination
with herbs such as buchu ( Borosma betulina, p. 71)
and uva-ursi ( Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, p. 170).
Cranberry may also be used long term to prevent the
development of calcium carbonate urinary stones.
Research Research published in 1994 found that
cranberry juice reduced the need for antibiotics
in women suffering from chronic urinary tract
infection. It seems likely that cranberry works by
making it more difficult for bacteria to cling to the
urinary tract wall, and infection is therefore more
easily flushed out. The proanthocyanidins and
catechins are probably responsible for this action.
Cautions In kidney disease, use only on
professional advice.

Verbascum thapsus
(Scrophulariaceae)

Mullein

Description Upright biennial growing to 614 ft
(2 m). Has slightly hairy, gray-green, oval to lance¬
shaped leaves, and spikes of bright yellow flowers.
Habitat & Cultivation Mullein is native to
central and southern Europe and western Asia.

It is now also naturalized in many other temperate
regions. Mullein grows on open uncultivated land
and along roadsides. The leaves and flowers are
collected during the summer.

Parts Used Leaves, flowers.

Constituents Mullein contains mucilage,
flavonoids, triterpenoid saponins, volatile oil,
and tannins.

History & Folklore Mullein was once credited
with magical as well as medicinal virtues. John Gerard,
a 16th-century herbalist, expressed doubts about
the former: “there be some who think that this
herbe being carryed aboute one, doth help

the falling sickness... which thing is vaine and
superstitious.’’ However, he did affirm mullein’s
value as a cough medicine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Mullein is a
valuable herb for coughs and congestion, and is a
specific treatment for tracheitis and bronchitis.
The leaves and the flowers may be used as an
infusion to reduce mucus formation and stimulate
the coughing up of phlegm. Mullein combines
well with other expectorants such as coltsfoot
(Tussilago farfara, p. 278) and thyme ( Thymus
vulgaris, p. 143). Applied externally, mullein
is emollient and makes a good wound healer.

In Germany, the flowers are steeped in olive
oil, and the resulting fixed oil is used as a remedy
for ear infections and hemorrhoids.

Mullein is a good expectorant remedy for coughs and other
chest problems.

Veronica officinalis
(Scrophulariaceae)

Speedwell

Description Creeping hairy perennial growing
to 20 in (50 cm). Has oval leaves and darkly veined
lilac flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation A common wild plant
in Europe and North America, speedwell is most
often found on heaths and in dry grassy places. It is
picked in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Speedwell contains iridoid
glycosides (including aucubin), acetopenone
glucosides, and flavonoids (including apigenin
and scutellarin).

History & Folklore Speedwell was
formerly considered a useful diuretic and
expectorant. It was much used to treat congestion,
coughs and chronic skin conditions. It was also

given to counter nervous exhaustion due to
excessive mental activity or concentration.
However, in 1935, the French medicinal plant
specialist Leclerc stated that “the infusion has
no more virtue than the hot water used to
prepare it.’’

Medicinal Actions & Uses Speedwell is now
considered to have only a slight therapeutic effect.
It is little used today.

Viburnum prunifolium
(Caprifoliaceae)

Black E3aw

Description Deciduous shrub growing to 16 ft
(5 m). Has serrated oval leaves, clusters of white
flowers, and blue-black berries.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to central
and southern North America, black haw grows in
woodland. The branch bark is stripped in the spring
or autumn, the root bark in the autumn only.
Parts Used Bark, root bark.

Constituents Black haw contains coumarins
(including scopoletin and aesculetin), salicin,

I-methyl-2,3-dibutyl hemimellitate, viburnin, plant
acids, a trace of volatile oil, and tannin.

History & Folklore The Catawba people
used black haw bark to treat dysentery. In the 19th
century, the bark was considered to be a uterine
tonic, and a decoction was commonly used to help
arrest hemorrhage of the uterus.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Black haw is
antispasmodic and astringent, and is regarded as a
specific treatment for menstrual pain. Echoing its
19th-century applications, the bark is also used to
treat other gynecological conditions, such as
prolapse of the uterus, heavy menopausal bleeding,
morning sickness, and threatened miscarriage. Black
haw’s antispasmodic property makes it of value in
cases where colic or other cramping pain affects the
bile ducts, the digestive tract, or the urinary tract.
Related Species The closely related V. rufidulum
was used by the Menominee people to treat
cramps and colic. See also cramp bark ( Viburnum
opulus, p. 150).

Caution People who are allergic to aspirin should
not take black haw.

Self-help Use Period pain, p. 3 15.

Vinca minor (Apocynaceae)

Lesser Periwinkle

Description A mainly ground-hugging
evergreen shrub arching to 18 in (45 cm).
Has rooting stems, shiny elliptical leaves, and
5-petaled, violet-blue flowers.

28

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

VINCA ROSEA

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,
lesser periwinkle grows in along roadsides and
woodland borders. It is also cultivated as a garden
plant. The leaves are gathered in spring.

Parts Used Leaves.

Constituents Lesser periwinkle contains about
7% indole alkaloids (including vincamine, vincine,
and vincaminine), a bisindol alkaloid (vincarubine),
and tannins. Vincamine increases blood flow and
oxygen supply to the brain.

History & Folklore In his Herbarium, the
2nd-century ce Roman writer Apuleius describes
lesser periwinkle’s virtues “against the devil sickness
and demoniacal possessions and against snakes and
wild beasts.” He also specifies the rituals used in
harvesting the herb: “This wort thou shalt pluck
thus, saying, ‘I pray thee, vinca pervinca, thee that
art to be had for thy many useful qualities... outfit
me so that I be shielded and ever prosperous and
undamaged by poisons and by water.’ When thou
shalt pluck this wort, thou shalt be clean of every
uncleanness, and thou shalt pick it when the moon
is nine nights old.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Lesser periwinkle
is employed as an astringent and blood-staunching
herb. Its astringency makes it a useful mouthwash
for sore throats, gingivitis, and mouth ulcers. Its
staunching ability is effective against internal
bleeding, heavy menstrual bleeding, and
nosebleeds. Since vincamine was discovered in the
leaves, lesser periwinkle has been used to treat
arteriosclerosis and for dementia due to
insufficient blood flow to the brain.

Related Species Greater periwinkle ( V. major)
also has similar astringent activity. See also
Madagascar periwinkle (V rosea, following entry).
Caution Do not take during pregnancy.

Vinca rosea (Apocynaceae)

Madagascar
Periwinkle

Description Lleshy perennial growing to 32 in
(80 cm). Has glossy oval leaves and bright, white to
red 5-petaled flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Thought to be a native
of Madagascar, this herb is now common in many
tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. It is
cultivated commercially as a garden ornamental.
The herb and root are gathered in summer.

Parts Used Aerial parts, root.

Constituents Madagascar periwinkle contains
over 70 different indole alkaloids, including
vinblastine, vincristine, alstonine, ajmalicine,
leurocristine, and reserpine.

Medicinal Actions & Uses This plant is used
282 in folk medicine in the Philippines as a remedy for

diabetes. In the Caribbean, the flowers are used
as a soothing eyewash.

Research Madagascar periwinkle’s traditional use
as a treatment for diabetes has led to extensive
investigation into its properties. Vincristine and
vinblastine are powerful anticancer agents, and are
two of the most important medicinal compounds
found in plants in the last 40 years. Vincristine is a
standard treatment for Hodgkin’s disease, and
vinblastine for childhood leukemia. While extracts
from Madagascar periwinkle have been shown to
lower blood-sugar levels, simple preparations of
the whole plant may not be effective.

© O Caution Take Madagascar periwinkle only
under professional supervision.

Viola odorata (Violaceae)

Sweet Violet

Description Creeping perennial growing to 6 in
(15 cm). Has toothed oval leaves, and attractive,
violet-blue or white flowers with a 5-petaled corolla.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to much of
Europe and Asia, sweet violet is a common wayside
plant also found along roadsides and in woodlands.
The flowers and leaves are collected in spring, the
root in autumn.

Parts Used Llowers, leaves, root.
Constituents Sweet violet contains phenolic
glycosides (including gaultherin), saponins (myrosin
and violin), flavonoids, an alkaloid (odoratine),
and mucilage.

History & Folklore In classical myth, sweet
violet was associated with death, but classical
physicians also knew it as an effective emetic and
cough remedy. The 17th-century herbalist Nicholas
Culpeper stated that: “All the violets are cold and
moist while they are fresh and green, and are used
to cool any heat or distemperature of the body
either inwardly or outwardly.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Sweet violet
flowers and leaves have a gentle expectorant and
demulcent action and they induce light sweating.
They are often used as an infusion or syrup for
treating coughs, chest colds and congestion. They
are used in British herbalism to treat breast and
stomach cancer. The root is a much stronger
expectorant and, at higher doses, is emetic.
Research Iranian researchers investigated the
use of two drops of sweet violet essential oil
applied to the nostrils as a remedy for insomnia.
The study, which lasted a month, found positive
improvements in sleep measurements in those
using the oil. A 2015 study of children with asthma
concluded that sweet violet syrup helped to
reduce symptoms of dry irritable cough.

Related Species The related dog violet
(V. canina ) has approximately the same uses as
sweet violet. The Chinese V. yedoens is prescribed

for hot swellings and tumors, mumps, and abscesses.
See also heartsease ( V. tricolor, following entry).

Viola tricolor (Violaceae)

Heartsease

Description Annual, biennial, or perennial
plant growing to 15 in (38 cm). Has lobed, oval
leaves and handsome violet, yellow, and white
pansy-type flowers.

Habitat & Cultivation Heartsease is native
to Europe, North Africa, and temperate regions of
Asia, and has become naturalized in the Americas. It
thrives in many habitats, from grasssy mountainous
areas to coastal sites, and is also cultivated as a garden
plant. The aerial parts are gathered in summer.
Parts Used Aerial parts.

Constituents Heartsease contains saponins,
flavonoids, salicylates, mucilage, gums, and a resin.
History & Folklore K’Eogh wrote in his 1735
Irish Herbal that heartsease flowers “cure convulsions
in children, cleanse the lungs and breast and are very
good for fevers, internal inflammations and wounds.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In Western
herbal medicine, heartsease is used as an anti¬
inflammatory and purifying herb and is taken
for skin conditions such as eczema. An infusion
also makes a useful wash for itchiness. Being
expectorant, heartsease is used to treat bronchitis
and whooping cough. The plant’s established
diuretic action makes it useful for treating
rheumatism, cystitis, and difficulty in passing urine.
Research Recent research has found that
heartsease has potential anticancer properties. It
promoted programmed cell death (apoptosis) and
inhibited blood vessel growth (angiogenesis), both
important anticancer effects. A clinical trial in
children with asthma found that heartsease syrup
helped to control dry irritable cough alongside
prescribed medication for asthma.

Self-help Use Hives, p. 303.

Heartsease grows wild in temperate areas, and is widely
cultivated as a garden plant.

ZIZIP H U S JUJUBA

Viscum album (Loranthaceae)

European Mistletoe

Description Parasitic evergreen shrub that forms
bunches up to 10 ft (3 m) across on host trees. Has
narrow leathery leaves, yellowish flowers in clusters
of 3, and sticky round, white berries.

Mistletoe was the “golden” bough that saved the legendary
Aeneas from the underworld.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe
and northern Asia, European mistletoe grows on
host trees, especially apple trees (Malus species).

It is harvested in autumn.

Parts Used Leaves, branches, berries.
Constituents Mistletoe contains glycoproteins,
polypeptides (viscotoxins), lectins, flavonoids,
caffeic and other acids, lignans, acetylcholine, and,
in the berries, polysaccharides. Viscotoxins inhibit
tumors and stimulate immune resistance.

History & Folklore In Norse mythology,
a mistletoe bough was used to slay Balder, the
god of peace. The plant was subsequently
entrusted to the goddess of love, and kissing
under it became obligatory.

Medicinal Actions & Uses European
mistletoe is chiefly used to lower blood pressure
and heart rate, ease anxiety, and promote sleep. In
low doses it also relieves panic attacks and
headaches, and improves the ability to concentrate.
The plant is also prescribed for tinnitus and
epilepsy. It may be used to treat hyperactivity in
children. In anthroposophical medicine, extracts of
the berries are injected to treat cancer.

Research European mistletoe’s efficacy as an
anticancer treatment has been subject to significant
research. There is no doubt that certain
constituents, especially the viscotoxins, exhibit
an anticancer activity, but the value of the whole
plant in cancer treatment is not yet fully accepted.
O Caution European mistletoe, and especially
the berries, is highly toxic. Take only under
professional supervision.

Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae)

Grape

Description Deciduous climber with erect
stems, tendrils, palm-shaped leaves, clusters of
small, pale green flowers, and bunches of fruit
(grapes) that vary in color from green to black.
Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern
Europe and western Asia, grapes are cultivated in
warm temperate regions throughout the world for
their fruit and to produce wine. The leaves are
collected in summer, the fruit in autumn.

Parts Used Leaves, fruit, seeds, sap.
Constituents Grapes contain flavonoids,
tannins, tartrates, inositol, carotenes, choline, and
sugars. The fruit contains tartaric and malic acids,
sugars, pectin, tannin, flavone glycosides,
anthocyanins (in red leaves and red grapes),
vitamins A, B,, B 2 , and C, and minerals. The
anthocyanins reduce capillary permeability.
History & Folklore Nicholas Culpepper in
1652 extolled the virtues of the grape vine,
describing it as “a most gallant tree of the sun very
sympathetical to the body of man, and that’s the
reason spirit of wine is the greatest cordial
amongst all vegetables.”

Medicinal Actions & Uses Grape
leaves, especially the red leaves, are astringent and
anti-inflammatory. They are taken as an infusion
to treat diarrhea, heavy menstrual bleeding, and
uterine hemorrhage, as a wash for mouth ulcers,
and as a douche for vaginal discharge. Red leaves
and grapes are helpful in the treatment of varicose
veins, hemorrhoids, and capillary fragility. The sap
from the branches is used as an eyewash. Grapes
are nourishing and mildly laxative and they support
the body through illness, especially of the
gastrointestinal tract and liver. Because the nutrient
content of grapes is close to that of blood plasma,
grape fasts are recommended for detoxification.

The dried fruit (raisins or currants) is mildly
expectorant and emollient, with a slight effect
in easing coughs. Wine vinegar is astringent,
cooling, and soothing to the skin.

Research Grape-seed extract has potent
antioxidant and circulatory-protective activity.

It appears to normalize blood pressure and
heart rate, working best as a preventative, antiaging
remedy that supports healthy circulation. One
study found grape-seed extract reduced leg
swelling in healthy women required to sit for
long periods of time at work. Recent studies
also indicate that grape-seed extract can be
useful in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and
type 2 diabetes.

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Jujube,

Da Zao (Chinese)

Description Spiny deciduous tree growing to
approximately 26 ft (8 m). Has oblong, bluntly
toothed leaves, clusters of small greenish-yellow
flowers, and reddish-brown or black oval fruit.

Habitat & Cultivation Native to China, Japan
and Southeast Asia, the jujube is widely cultivated
in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and the
Mediterranean. The fruit is collected in early autumn.
Part Used Fruit.

Constituents Jujube contains saponins,
bioflavonoids, polyphenols, polysaccharides, volatile
oil, mucilage, vitamins A, B 2 , and C, in addition to
calcium, phosphorus, and iron. It contains 20 times
more vitamin C than citrus fruit.

History & Folklore Used in Chinese herbal
medicine for at least 2,500 years, jujube has a
pleasant, sweet taste and high nutritional value. It is
mentioned in the Classic of Odes, a 6th-century bce
anthology of Chinese poetry.

Medicinal Actions & Uses Jujube is both a
delicious fruit and an effective herbal remedy. It
aids weight gain, improves muscular strength, and
increases stamina. In Chinese medicine, jujube is
prescribed as a qi tonic to strengthen liver function.
Mildly sedative and antiallergenic, it is given to
reduce irritability and restlessness. It is also used
to improve the taste of unpalatable prescriptions.
Research In Japan, jujube has been shown to
increase immune-system resistance. In China,
laboratory animals fed a jujube decoction gained
weight and showed improved endurance. In one
clinical study, 12 patients with liver ailments were
given jujube, peanuts, and brown sugar nightly. In
4 weeks, their liver function had improved.
Related Species The sedative Z. spinosa is used
in Chinese medicine to “nourish the heart and
quieten the spirit.”

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OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS

HERBAL
REMEDIES FOR
HOME USE

Herbal medicines have been used since the earliest times. They are a vital
part of our natural and medical heritage, and there is immense satisfaction
to be had in growing, harvesting, and processing herbs for home use.

Taken sensibly, and with the respect due to medicines of all kinds, medicinal
plants can greatly improve health. This section provides practical cultivation
advice and step-by-step instructions on how to make and use safe and
effective herbal remedies for a range of common ailments, from allergies
and digestive complaints to skin conditions and stress-related disorders.

“A man may esteem
himself happy when
that which is his food
is also his medicine.”

Henry David Thoreau

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Growing Medicinal Plants

Growing medicinal plants may be more time-consuming than buying them,
but it brings with it the unique pleasure of producing your own herbal
remedies. Many medicinal herbs are easy to grow and will flourish indoors,
on a windowsill, or in the garden, providing a year-round supply of fresh,
sweet-smelling natural medicines.

The Medicinal Herb Garden

Planning an herb garden depends on a range of
factors including the space available, exposure, soil,
conditions, and climate. As a starting point, details
of ten of the most common and useful medicinal
plants for growing in temperate climates are given
in the chart below. Some of them, such as thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143) and sage ( Salvia officinalis,
p. 131), may be grown indoors. A number of other
medicinal herbs, including German chamomile
(Chamomilla recutita, p. 77), lady’s mantle (Alchemilla
vulgaris, p. 163), and lavender (Lavandula officinalis,
p. 108) also grow well in a temperate climate and
are well worth cultivating. If in doubt about how
to care for plants or what will grow well in your
garden, consult a nursery.

Outdoor Gardens

Choose a range of hardy herbs to grow in your
garden that will establish themselves easily and
produce plenty of foliage that can be harvested.
Plant exotic or less hardy herbs in sheltered sunny
sites or in containers.

Container Gardens
Many medicinal plants such as peppermint
(Mentha x piperita, p. 114) or bay laurel
(Laurus nobilis, p. 226) can be grown in pots,

hanging baskets, or window boxes. Care must
be taken to prevent them from drying out or
becoming pot-bound (when the plant becomes
too large for the container). Less hardy plants
should be moved to sheltered sites or indoors
during winter.

Growing Plants Under Cover

Sheltered gardening offers the opportunity to
grow more unusual plants. Use the greenhouse
to cultivate exotic plants, such as lemon grass
(Cymbopogon citratus, p. 198), for medicinal and
culinary use, as well as for growing seedlings to
be planted outdoors. Tender plants, such as holy
basil (Ocimum tenuifiorum, p. I 16), thrive indoors,
and some indoor plants, such as aloe vera (Aloe
vera, p. 60), have the added advantage of absorbing
polluting chemicals from the air.

Buying Medicinal Herbs

Reputable herb nurseries are the best place
to buy herbs when particular varieties or
species are required. Be clear about what
plants you want before visiting the nursery.

When buying for medicinal use, purchase the
standard medicinal, ratherthan an improved
or ornamental variety.

Cultivation

Bear in mind the following points when planning
the garden and choosing herbs.

Site

The majority of medicinal plants prefer a sunny
exposure and moderately well-drained soil. It is
possible to improve a site, for example by planting
hedges as windbreaks. Choose sheltered, sunny
corners for delicate and half-hardy herbs, and
avoid planting on land formerly used for industrial
purposes, which may be contaminated.
Temperature

Some plants tolerate only very specific
temperature ranges, and many herbs, such as
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, p. 128), are only
half-hardy and will not survive exposure to deep
or long periods of frost. Protect tender and half-
hardy plants from the wind to avoid the windchill
factor. Spring is the best time to plant most herbs.
Wintering plants in a greenhouse or cool indoor
site is often the only way to keep subtropical plants
in cool temperate climates, while other herbs will
thrive indoors all year round in a warm, sunny
position.

Soil

Soils vary greatly depending on the proportions
of sand, silt, and clay content. Sandy soils drain
easily and need feeding, while clay soils can become
waterlogged and require drainage.

Pruning

Pruning is used to remove dead wood and
improve the shape, size, and quality of growth.

It is an important garden activity and needs to
be done correctly for different woody plants
to benefit—check the best time of year for each
plant. Deadheading plants, especially shrubs,

286

Useful Herbs to Grow

PLANT

WHEN

TO PLANT

CULTIVATION

METHOD

CONDITIONS & CARE

MEDICINAL USES

Aloe vera

(Aloe vera, p. 60)

spring/autumn

offsets

■ sunny site indoors; pot up as
needed; do not overwater

■ fresh plant gel for minor burns and
wounds

Comfrey

(Symphytum officinale, p. 138)

spring/autumn

seed/division

■ warm sunny site; moist soil

■ ointment or poultice for sprains and bruises
(use the leaf only)

Feverfew

(Tanacetum parthenium, p. 140)

autumn/spring

seed/cutting/division

■ well-drained or dry, stony soil
in sun

■ fresh leaf or tincture for headaches and
migraines

Lemon balm

(Melissa officinalis, p. 113)

spring/autumn

seed/cutting/division

■ moist soil in sun; cut back after
flowering

■ infusion for anxiety, poor sleep, and nervous
indigestion; lotion for cold sores

Calendula

(Calendula officinalis, p. 73)

spring/autumn

seed

■ well-drained soil; full sun; remove
dead flower heads

■ cream for cuts, scrapes, inflamed skin; infusion
for fungal infections

Peppermint

(, Mentha x piperita, p. 114)

spring/autumn

cutting/division

■ sunny but moist site; do not allow
to dry out

■ infusion for indigestion and headaches; lotion
for itchy skin

Rosemary

(Rosmarinus ofpcinalis, p. 128)

spring/autumn

seed/cutting

■ sunny sheltered site; protect with
burlap in winter

■ infusion as a stimulating nerve tonic and to aid
weak digestion

Sage

(Salvia offcinalis, p. 131)

autumn/spring

seed/cutting/layering

■ well-drained or dry, sunny,
sheltered site

■ infusion for sore throats, mouth ulcers, and
diarrhea

St. John’s wort

(Hypericum perforatum, p. 106)

spring/autumn

seed/division

■ well-drained to dry soil with sun
or partial shade

■ tincture for depression and menopause;
infused oil is antiseptic and heals wounds

Thyme

(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

spring/summer

seed/cutting/division

■ well-drained soil, may need a layer
of gravel; sunny site

■ infusion for coughs, colds, and chest
infections; lotion for fungal infections

herbs. Cuttings are usually taken from the stem,
although some plants may also be propagated
from roots. Choose young, healthy plants and take
the cutting just below a leaf and stem joint using
a clean, sharp knife. Strip off the lowest leaves and
dip the stem in hormone rooting preparation before
inserting it in suitable soil mix. Some plants are
very difficult to propagate this way, so check before
attempting this method.

encourages fresh growth. Pruning and tidying the
garden regularly also reduces pests and diseases.

Watering

Water well after planting and then, if needed,
once a week (rather than a little each day) in the
morning or early evening. Do not overwater as
many herbs produce medicinally active constituents
in dry conditions. Water dry potted plants
thoroughly before planting.

Weeding & Fertilizing

Weeding is necessary since weeds compete with
other plants for nutrients and water. Keep beds
and containers as free from weeds as possible.
Most medicinal herbs should not be fed or
mulched as this tends to reduce their therapeutic
strength. However, sandy soils should be fed with
a good-quality fertilizer to maintain the nutrients
in the soil.

Pests & Diseases

Use only organic methods to treat pests, diseases,
and insect infestation. Aphids can be eradicated
using soapy water or water in which garlic skins
have been soaked for 2 days. Separate any infected
plants to prevent further contamination.

Sowing Seeds in Containers

Fresh ginger root rapidly produces many new shoots if
planted in moist compost in warm conditions above 70°F
(21 °C).

Cultivated herb gardens can create a colorful, aromatic area with the added beneft of providing a ready supply of fresh herbs
to use both medicinally and in cooking.

Propagation Methods M

There is a wide variety of
propagation methods. Choose
the one most suited to the plant.

When planting, prepare the ground
in advance, taking into account the
requirements of the individual plant,
and the soil, site, and time of year, as well
as the anticipated size of the mature plant.

Seed

Seeds can be sown either in containers or in
prepared soil in open ground. It is important to
time the sowing of seeds to enable seedlings to
be planted outdoors when weather and soil become
sufficiently warm. Annuals and biennials can be grown
with ease from seed and will grow vigorously
throughout the summer Check the germination
requirements of perennials before buying seeds, as
some varieties germinate easily, while others, such as
Siberian ginseng ( Eleutherococcus senticosus, p. 94), can
be far more difficult.

Cuttings

This is one of the most popular methods of
propagation. It is suitable for woody perennial

Root Division

This is an easy way to propagate plants that form
clumps. Divide spring-flowering herbaceous plants
in autumn, and autumn-flowering herbaceous
plants in spring. Carefully lift a mature plant, divide
it into smaller sections, and replant both the new
and the mature plant.

Plants from Produce
Purchase pots of culinary herbs from a grocery
or supermarket, split the seedlings into 3 to 4
small clumps, and pot them
separately. Fresh roots, such as
ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155),
or bulblets, such as garlic (Allium
sativum, p. 59), can be planted in pots
or in prepared ground outside, if
temperature allows.

Layering

Layering involves encouraging a
shoot or stem to form roots by
I making a small slit in its underside
and burying it, with the growing tip
above ground. When the layer
roots emerge, remove and pot.
“Mound layering” is suitable for
woody herbs such as
i sage (Salvia officinalis, p. 131).
Pile free-draining soil over
the base of the plant, and
when the layered stems
form new roots, remove
and pot.

I F/7/ a seed tray with seed soil mix and water well.

Sprinkle on the seeds, covering large seeds with
a fine layer of compost. Cover the tray with glass or
place in a plastic bag and store in a warm place (up
to 70°F/21 °Q.

2 Once the seeds have germinated, fill a number
of pots with soil mix. Gently lift up a seedling,
insert it in a small hole in the soil mix, and pack the
soil around it. Water thoroughly and do not allow to
dry out.

Offsets

Offsets are produced from most herbs that grow
from a bulb or corm, such as garlic (Allium sativum,
p. 59). These can be detached during dormancy
and replanted.

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■ HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Harvesting & Processing

Although there are some herbs that may be collected year round, most have
a particular growing season and must be harvested and either used immediately
or preserved for use in the following year, See the individual entries on
pp. 56-283 for harvesting times. Herbs need to be processed quickly to
prevent deterioration and retain their healing action.

Harvesting from the Wild

Wild plants offer a free and natural source of
herbal remedies. Furthermore, active constituents
are often more highly concentrated in wild
plants since the herb is likely to be growing in its
preferred habitat.

Identification

Proper identification of wild plants is essential.

Use a field or wildflower guide to help you. If
in doubt, do not pick the plant, as poisoning can
result from misidentification.

Ecological & Legal Factors
While common species, such as nettle ( Urtica
dioica, p. 146), may be readily harvested from
the wild, many rarer species are under great
pressure due to the lack of a suitable habitat
In many countries it is illegal to uproot any wild
plant, and certain species may be protected.
Although gathering medicinal plants such as
gentian ( Gentiana lutea, p. 99) may be legal in
some countries, it will only reduce their future
chances of survival in the wild. Never pick rare
or uncommon plants from the wild, even if they
are locally plentiful, and do not collect more than

you will use. Do not harvest bark from the wild.
Before harvesting, consider where the plant is
growing and whether it could be contaminated
by pollution. Do not collect from roadsides,
close to factories, or in areas where crop
spraying has occurred.

Harvesting from Your Garden

Cultivated herbs provide a ready supply of
fresh material in a controlled environment.

Cut perennials carefully so that plants can
quickly regrow. Some plants, such as lemon
balm (Me//sso officinalis, p. I 13), provide two
or more crops per year.

General Advice

Harvesting medicinal herbs requires careful
planning to ensure the parts are processed in
peak condition and fast enough to retain their
active ingredients.

Equipment

Ideally, use a wooden tray or open basket for
collecting herbs. This prevents the plant being
crushed. In the wild, a non-nylon rucksack or

sack may be more appropriate. Always cut with
a sharp knife or scissors to minimize damage to
the plant and try to handle plants as little as
possible. Wear gloves if gathering prickly or
allergenic plants, such as rue (Ruta graveolens,
p. 265).

What to Look For

Collect material from healthy plants, free from
insect damage and pollution. It is important
to discard damaged plants because they can lead
to disease or decay in dried plant material. Do
not mix cut plant material to avoid mistakes
in identification.

When to Harvest

Gather herbs in dry weather, preferably on a
sunny morning after the dew has evaporated.
Picking when the plant is at its peak of maturity
ensures that it will have a high concentration of
active constituents. Unless otherwise stated in
the individual plant entries on pp. 56-283, leaves
are best collected as they open during the spring
or summer months, flowers as they start to
bloom, fruit and berries just as they become
ripe, and roots in the autumn once the plant
has drawn its vitality back beneath ground. Bark
must be gathered with great care if the shrub
or tree is to survive—in most cases, harvest it
in spring or autumn.

The Correct Medicinal Part

In many cases, different parts of the same plant,
for example the leaves and seeds, can have quite
different actions and uses. Make sure that you
harvest the correct medicinal part of the plant
for your purposes.

Processing Quickly

Only collect plant material that you will be able to
use or process immediately after harvesting. This
is because fresh plant material deteriorates very
quickly and the medicinally active constituents are
often the first to be affected. In particular, aromatic
herbs can lose their volatile oils within hours. Salad
leaves and culinary herbs are best eaten right
away to make the most of their nutrients, although
they can be stored for a few days in a plastic bag
filled with air in a refrigerator.

Ramsons can be found carpeting shady sites in damp woods in Europe. The bulb and aerial parts are harvested in early
summer for their antibiotic, healing properties.

Storing Herbs

It is vital to store dried herbs properly or they
will not last. Leaves, flowers, roots, and other
parts should be stored in sterilized, dark glass
containers with airtight lids. They may also be
stored in new brown paper bags, which must be
kept dry and away from light. Metal and plastic
containers are inadvisable because they may
contaminate the herb. If stored in a cool, dark
place, herbs can be kept for about 12 months
after harvesting. Herbs frozen in plastic bags can
be used for up to 6 months. Label the container
with the herb, source, date of harvesting, and
strength of preparation if appropriate. Watch out

for insect infestation. If this occurs, discard all
affected material and sterilize the container.

Processing

Herbs can be preserved in a number of ways, the
simplest being air or oven drying. A warm, dry
place such as an airing cupboard is ideal. Use plain
paper for drying herbs, never printed newspaper.
Dried herbs can be stored for many months in a
dark glass jar or a brown paper bag (see p. 288).
Aerial Parts

These include all the parts of the plant growing
above ground—stems, leaves, flowers, berries, and
seeds. The stems are normally cut 2-A in (5-10
cm) above ground shortly after the plant has
begun to flower, when it is putting most effort into
growth. Perennials may be cut higher above
ground to encourage further crops. Remove and
dry large flowers and leaves separately; smaller
ones can be dried on the stem.

■ Hang bunches of about 8-10 stems in a warm
(but not hot), well-ventilated, dark place. Ensure
that the stems and leaves are not too tightly
packed together to enable air to circulate freely
around them.

■ Once brittle but not bone dry, separate small
stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds from the stems by
rubbing the bunches over a large sheet of plain paper

■ Carefully pour the dried material into a dark glass
jar or a brown paper bag.

Large Flowers

In most cases, flowers are picked just after they
have opened. Sometimes only specific parts of
the flower are used, such as the petals of calendula
(Calendula officinalis, p. 73), while other flowers are
used whole.

■ Separate large flower heads from stems and
remove any insects or dirt. Place the flowers on
absorbent paper on a tray in a dry place, allowing
sufficient room between them for air to circulate.

■ Once dry, store flower heads in a brown paper
bag or dark glass jar. Remove calendula petals from
the central part of the flower before storing.

Small Flowers

Small blooms can be picked with the stalk attached
and separated later. Hang small flowers, such as
lavender (Lavandula officinalis, p. 108), upside down
in a paper bag, or suspended over a tray (see
drying seeds below). If the stems are fleshy, dry
as for large flowers, above.

Fruit & Berries

Harvest fruit and berries in early autumn when
ripe but still firm. If left to become over-ripe,
they may not dry properly. They can be picked
individually or in bunches.

■ Place berries or fruit on absorbent paper on
trays. Put in a warmed oven (turned off) with the
door ajar for 3^4 hours. Move to a dry, warm, dark
site and turn occasionally. Discard any moldy
berries or fruit.

Brightly colored petals indicate high levels of
active constituents.

Roots, Rhizomes, Tubers, & Bulbs

The underground parts of the plant are usually
gathered in autumn after the aerial parts have
withered or become inactive and before the soil
is waterlogged or frozen. Many roots may also
be collected in early spring before the aerial parts
begin to grow. Dig deeply around the root, prying
it out of the ground. Some tap roots are difficult to
uproot completely. Remove the required amount
and replant the remaining root.

■ Shake off any soil and wash thoroughly in warm
water, removing any small, unwanted side roots
or damaged soft spots. Chop into small slices or
pieces with a sharp knife.

■ Spread out the root pieces on absorbent paper
on a tray and place in a warmed oven (turned off)
with the door ajar for 2-3 hours. Move to a warm
place until dry.

Seeds

Collect ripe seed pods, capsules, or flowering
stems in late summer before the seeds have
been scattered.

■ For tiny seeds, hang small bunches of seedheads
upside down over a paper-lined tray, or place in a
paper bag. Allow to dry and gently shake. Remove
larger seeds by hand when dry.

Sap & Gel

Only harvest sap from your own garden. Collect
sap in the spring as it rises, or as it falls in the
autumn. Trees such as silver birch (Betula pendula,
p. 178) produce huge quantities of sap if tapped,
although this reduces the tree’s vitality. Bore a deep
hole into the trunk—no more than a quarter of
its diameter—and place a collecting cup under
the hole. In spring, quarts of sap may be
produced, and it is essential to stop the hole
with resin or wood filler after about a quart (liter)
of fluid has been removed. Collect milky juices or
latex from plants such as dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale, p. 141) by squeezing the stems over a
bowl. Wear gloves, because latex or sap can be

corrosive. The gel from aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60)
is scraped out after slicing the leaf lengthwise and
peeling back the edges.

Bark

Only harvest bark from your own shrubs
or trees as it carries the risk of losing the whole
plant through overstripping or “ringing” (removing
a whole band of bark). It is best to collect bark
from outlying branches, which can then be pruned
back. If stripping bark from a plant, gather it in
autumn when the sap is falling. Remove insects,
lichen, and moss from the bark, cut it into small
pieces, and place it on a tray to dry.

Other Ways to Preserve Herbs

Apart from simply air-drying herbs, there are a
number of other ways to preserve their medicinal
benefits.

Dehumidifying

An effective but expensive way to dry herbs is to
use a dehumidifier, which literally sucks water out
of the plant. The dehumidifier should be placed
in a more or less sealed small room in which the
herbs are hung in loose bunches or placed on
mesh trays.

Freeze-drying

Freeze-drying retains color and flavor but is more
suited to culinary than to medicinal herbs. Whole
sprigs of herbs can be frozen in plastic bags. There
is no need to defrost before use as the leaves
crumble easily when still frozen. Chickweed (Stellaria
media, p. 272) can also be frozen and used topically
for itchy and weeping skin conditions. Many plants
may be juiced (see p. 297), frozen as ice cubes, and
thawed as required.

Microwaving

It is possible to dry herbs in a microwave oven,
though this is not recommended. The cut parts
should be spread out on kitchen paper and dried
in the microwave according to the manufacturer’s
guidelines.

A drying rack for herbs can be simply made by covering a
wooden frame with wire mesh.

289

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Making Herbal Remedies

In the past, medicinal herbs have been made into an extraordinary variety of
formulations—not only infusions, decoctions, and tinctures, but also
preparations such as oxymels and elixirs. The following pages give simple step-
by-step instructions on making common herbal preparations. Making most
types of herbal medicine is not difficult, but it can be time-consuming—if you lack
time or equipment, buy ready-made remedies from an herbal supplier (see
Buying Herbal Medicines, p. 17).

Identification

Before using medicinal plants that have been
collected from the wild, it is essential that they be
correctly identified. If in doubt, do not use the herb.
The wrong identification of herbs has led to many
cases of poisoning. Foxglove leaves (Digitalis purpurea,
p. 202), for example, are often mistaken for comfrey
(Symphytum officinale, p. 138).

Utensils

Use glass, enamel, or stainless steel pots and pans,
wooden or steel knives and spatulas, and plastic
or nylon sieves. A wine press is useful for making
tinctures. Do not use aluminium utensils, as
this potentially toxic element is easily absorbed
by herbs.

Sterilization

All utensils used to make herbal remedies should
be sterilized for at least 30 minutes in a well-
diluted sterilizing solution, such as the type used
for a baby’s bottle. After soaking, rinse thoroughly

with boiled water and dry in a hot oven or wash
in a dishwasher. Proper sterilization maintains
hygiene and prevents remedies, especially creams
and syrups, from becoming moldy.

Weights & Measures
For most purposes, ordinary kitchen scales are
suitable, although electronic scales are more
accurate. Metric measurements of grams and liters
are generally much easier to use than imperial
measures when making remedies. If it is difficult
to weigh a small quantity, such as 10 g, on your
scales, measure double the weight; i.e., 20 g, then
halve the quantity. Liquids can be measured
in a kitchen measuring jug, although conical or
straight-sided glass measures are more accurate.
Very small volumes of liquid can be measured in
drops (see Measuring Remedies, right).

Storage

Different preparations may be kept for varying
periods of time before they begin to lose their

medicinal properties. Infusions should be made
fresh each day and decoctions must be consumed
within 48 hours. Store both in a refrigerator or
cool place. Tinctures and other liquid preparations,
such as syrups and essential oils, need to be stored
in dark glass bottles in a cool environment away
from sunlight, but can be kept for a number of
months or years. Ointments, creams, and capsules
are best kept in dark glass jars, although plastic
containers are also acceptable. See also Storing
Herbs, p. 288.

Measuring Remedies

I ml =20 drops

5 ml =1 teaspoon

15 ml =1 tablespoon
150 ml = I herbal cup
250 ml - I cup

Never exceed the quantity of herbs used or
the recommended dosage. Although these
measurements are approximate, they are
accurate enough for most purposes and
are used as standard throughout this book.
The number of drops to I ml depends on the
caliber of the pipette (or size of the droppertip)
being used. This can be checked by counting
the number of drops required to fill a 5 ml
measuring spoon (this book assumes that
100 drops is equal to 5 ml) and then adjusting
the drop dosage as necessary.

The Basic First Aid Kit

Adding herbal remedies to the conventional first aid kit in your home
increases the options available to you and your family when accidents happen
or illness strikes. The 13 remedies in this first aid kit can generally be found in

pharmacies, herbal stores, and health food stores. Alternatively, some can
be made at home, as detailed on the following pages. Check any cautions for
each herb before use.

Bandage

Thermometer

Bandages

Feverfew (Tanacetum
parthenium, p. 140)
capsules for headaches
and migraines

Slippery Elm

(Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
powder for coughs
and digestive upsets

Echinacea (Echinacea
spp., p. 92) capsules for
colds, flu, and infections

Lavender (Lavandula officinalis,
p. 108) essential oil for insect bites
and stings, burns, and headaches

Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia,
p. 112) essential oil is antiseptic
and antifungal

Valerian (Valeriana offcinalis,
p. 148) tablets for stress
and insomnia

Comfrey (Symphytum
officinale, p. 138) ointment
for bruises and sprains, and
for healing fractures

Calendula (Calendula offcinalis,
p. 73) cream for inflamed or
minor wounds, skin rashes,
and sunburn

Myrrh (Commiphora molmol,
p. 85) tincture for sore throats
and acne

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris,
p. 143) syrup for coughs,
colds, and chest infections

Witch Hazel (Hamamelis
virginiana, p. 102) distilled
water for healing cuts
and scrapes

Arnica (Arnica montana,
p. 172) cream for painful
bruises and muscle pain

Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)
capsules for infections; the oil
from the capsules for earache

290

Infusions

An infusion is the simplest way to prepare the more delicate aerial parts of
plants, especially leaves and flowers, for use as a medicine or as a revitalizing
or relaxing drink. It is made in a similar way to tea, using either a single herb or
a combination of herbs, and may be drunk hot or cold.

The medicinal value of many herbs lies chiefly in
their volatile oils, which will disperse into the air if
a lid is not used. This is especially important in the
case of German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,
p. 77). Use a teapot, or place a lid or saucer over
a cup if making a small quantity. Use water that has
just boiled. Popular herbal teas, such as German
chamomile, are often taken as much for their
refreshing taste as for their medicinal value and
can be safely consumed in quantities of up to 5 or
6 cups a day. Some herbs, however, such as yarrow
(Achillea millefolium, p. 56), are significantly stronger
and must be taken in less frequent doses. Other
herbs, such as feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium,
p. 140), are so strong that they are not suitable for
use in infusions. Always check the recommended
dosage and quantity of herb to use, as infusions
have medicinal actions and can produce unwanted
effects at the wrong dosage.

1 Place the herb in the
strainer of the teacup and
place a strainer in the cup. Fill
the cup with freshly boiled
water.

2 Cover the cup with
the lid and infuse
for 5-10 minutes
before removing the
tea strainer. Add a
teaspoon of honey to
sweeten, if desired.

Standard Quantity

CUP I tsp (2-3 g) dried or 2 tsp (4-6 g) fresh
herb (or mixture of herbs) to a cup of water
(this makes I dose)

POT 20 g dried herb or 30 g fresh herb (or a
mixture of different herbs) to 2 cups (500 ml)
of water

Standard Dosage

Take 3^4 doses (2 cups/500 ml) each day.

Storage

Store in a covered jug in a refrigerator or cool
place for up to 24 hours.

Pot Infusion

Warm the pot, then add the herb.
Pour in water that has just
boiled, replace the lid, and
infuse for 10 minutes.

Strain some of the
infusion into a cup.

A teaspoon of
honey may be
added if desired.

Decoctions

Roots, bark, twigs, and berries usually require a more forceful treatment than
leaves or flowers to extract their medicinal constituents. A decoction involves
simmering these tougher parts in boiling water. Fresh or dried plant material
may be used and should be cut or broken into small pieces before decocting.
Like infusions, decoctions can be taken hot or cold.

Decoctions are generally made using roots,
bark, and berries, but sometimes leaves and
flowers may be included. Add these more
delicate parts of a plant once the heat is turned
off and the decoction has finished simmering
and is beginning to cool. Then strain and use
as required.

Chinese Decoctions

In traditional Chinese medicine, decoctions are
the main way in which herbal medicines are
prepared. Large quantities of herb are often used
to produce a highly concentrated liquid, or the
decoction is further reduced so that there is
only 3 A cup (200 ml) of liquid remaining. This
increases the preparation’s concentration. This
process is useful for astringent barks such as
babul (Acacia nilotica, p. 159) and common oak
(Quercus robur, p. 260), which may be used
externally to tighten gums or wash weeping skin
rashes. (Do not take internally.)

1 Place the herbs in a saucepan. Cover with
cold water and bring to a boil. Simmer for
about 20-30 minutes, until the liquid is
reduced by about one-third.

2 Strain the liquid through a sieve into
a jug. Pour the required amount into
a cup, then cover the jug and store in a
cool place.

Standard Quantity

20 g dried or 40 g fresh herb (or mixture of
herbs) to 3 cups (750 ml) cold water, reduced
to about 2 cups (500 ml) after simmering (this
makes 3-4 doses)

Standard Dosage

Take 3^4 doses (2 cups/500 ml) each day.

Storage

Store in a covered jug in a refrigerator or cool
place for up to 48 hours.

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Tinctures

Tinctures are made by soaking an herb in alcohol. This encourages the active
plant constituents to dissolve, giving tinctures a relatively stronger action than
infusions or decoctions. They are convenient to use and last up to two years.
Tinctures can be made using a jug and a jelly bag, instead of a wine press.
Although mainly used in European, American, and Australian herbal medicine,
tinctures play a part in most herbal traditions.

}

Standard Quantity

200 g dried or 300 g fresh herb chopped into
small pieces to I quart (I liter) alcohol—vodka
of 35-40% alcohol is ideal, although rum hides
the taste of bitter or unpalatable herbs

Standard Dosage

Take I tsp (5 ml) 2-3 times a day diluted in
I tbsp plus I tsp (25 ml) of water or fruit juice.

Storage

Store in sterilized, dark glass bottles in a cool
dark place for up to 2 years.

1 Place the herb In a large, clean glass jar and pour on
the alcohol, ensuring that the herb is covered. Close and
label the jar. Shake well for 1-2 minutes and store in a cool
dark place for 10-14 days, shaking the jar every 1-2 days.

Tinctures are strong preparations, and it is essential
to check the recommended dosage. Never use
industrial alcohol, methylated spirits (methyl alcohol)
or rubbing alcohol (isopropyl alcohol) in tinctures.
Alcohol-reduced Tinctures
Alcoholic tinctures should sometimes be avoided,
for example during pregnancy or a gastric
inflammation. Adding I tsp (5 ml) of tincture to a
small glass of almost boiling water and leaving it
for 5 minutes allows the alcohol to evaporate. To
make nonalcoholic tinctures, replace the alcohol
with vinegar or glycerol.

Tincture Ratios

Tinctures are made in different strengths,
expressed as ratios. In this book, a 1:5 ratio
(I part herb to 5 parts alcohol) is used, unless
otherwise stated.

2 Set up the wine press, placing a muslin or nylon
mesh bag securely inside. Pour in the mixture and
collect the liquid in the jug.

3 Slowly close the wine press, extracting the
remaining liquid from the herbs until no more
drips appear. Discard the leftover herbs.

4 Pour the tincture into clean, dark glass bottles
using a funnel. When full, stopper with a cork
or screw top and label the bottles.

Capsules & Powders

Powdered herbs are most easily taken as capsules but can be sprinkled on food
or taken with water. Externally, they can be applied as a dusting powder to the
skin or mixed with tinctures as a poultice (see p. 295).

Reputable herbal suppliers are the best place
to buy powdered herbs and, in general, the
finer the powder the better the grade and
quality. Gelatin or vegetarian capsule cases
are also available from specialist outlets.
Powdered slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
makes a useful base for poultices (see p. 295),
and astringents such as witch hazel (Hamametis
virginiana, p. 102) may be applied to weeping
skin or mixed into ointments (see p. 295) for
hemorrhoids and varicose veins.

Making Capsules

I Pour the powder into a saucer and slide the
capsule halves toward one another, scooping
up the powder (or use a capsule-making tray).

Standard Quantity

Fill size 00 capsules, which contain approximately
250 mg of powdered herb

Standard Dosage

Take 2-3 capsules twice a day.

Storage

Store in airtight, dark glass containers in a cool
place for up to 3-4 months.

2 When the halves of the capsule are full of powder,
slide them together without spilling the powder,
and store.

Tonic Wines

Tonic wines are an agreeable way to take strengthening and tonic herbs to
increase vitality and improve digestion. Neither strictly medicinal, nor simply
appealing to the palate, they are easy to prepare at home. Tonic wines are
made by steeping tonic herbs, such as dong quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63), or
bitter herbs, such as southernwood (Artemisia abrotanum, p. 172), in red or
white wine for several weeks.

Standard Quantity

100 g dried or 200 g fresh tonic herbs or
25 g dried bitter herbs and I quart (I liter) of
red or white wine

Standard Dosage

Drink V3 cup (70 ml) each day before a meal.

Storage

Use a ceramic vat with a tap at its base, or a
sterilized glass jar. Store for 3^4 months, ensuring
wine covers the herbs. If the herbs become
moldy, discard the remedy.

A simple and effective way to make a tonic wine
is in a jar or a ceramic vat with a tap at the base to
enable the wine to be drawn off without disturbing
the herbs. Wine can be added periodically to
keep the herbs covered, although, in time, this
will reduce the wine’s tonic effectiveness. If
exposed to the air, the herbs may get moldy,
making the remedy not only ineffective but unsafe
to take.

1 Place the herb in a large, clean jar or vat.

Pour in enough wine to cover the herb
completely. Close the jar securely, shake
carefully, and leave to stand.

Herbal Wines

Herbal wines are made by fermenting the herb
in the same way that wine is produced from
grapes. With the correct equipment this is
a simple process, but fermentation alters the
activity of the herbs and tends to reduce their
medicinal value.

2 Allow the wine to mature over 2-6
weeks, then take a dose from the
tap or jar. Regularly top off the mixture
with wine.

Syrups

Honey and unrefined sugar are effective preservatives and can be combined
with infusions or decoctions to make syrups and cordials. They have the
additional benefit of having a soothing action, and therefore make a perfect
vehicle for cough mixtures as well as relieving sore throats. With their sweet
taste, syrups can disguise the taste of unpalatable herbs and are therefore

greatly appreciated by children.

A syrup is made with equal proportions of an
herbal infusion or decoction and honey or unre¬
fined sugar. When making an infusion or decoction
for a syrup, it needs to be infused or simmered for
the maximum time to optimize its medicinal
action. Infusions should be infused for 15 minutes
and decoctions should be simmered for 30 minutes.
Press the soaked herb through the strainer or sieve
to remove as much liquid as possible. Small amounts
of neat tincture can be added to the cooled syrup to
increase its effectiveness.

Syrups Made with Tinctures

Syrups may also be made with tinctures instead of
infusions or decoctions. Combine 500 g of honey
or unrefined sugar with I cup (250 ml) of water.
Gently heat until all the sugar or honey has
dissolved and the mixture has thickened. Remove
from the heat. Once cool, stir I part of the
tincture, or mixture of tinctures, into 3 parts of the
syrup and bottle as directed opposite.

I Pour the infusion or decoction into a pan. Add the
honey or sugar. Gently heat, stirring constantly
until all the honey or sugar has dissolved and the
mixture has a syrupy consistency. Remove from the
heat and cool.

Standard Quantity

2 cups (500 ml) infusion or decoction (see p.
29 I), infused or heated for the maximum time
(see left); 500 g honey or unrefined sugar

Standard Dosage

Take I -2 tsp (5-10 ml) 3 times a day.

Storage

Store in dark glass bottles with cork tops in a
cool place for up to 6 months.

2 Pour the cooled syrup into sterilized glass
jars using a funnel and store in a cool, dark
place. Seal the jars with cork stoppers, because
syrups are prone to ferment and may explode if
kept in screw-topped bottles.

293

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Infused Oils

Infusing an herb in oil allows its active, fat-soluble ingredients to be extracted;
hot infused oils are simmered, while cold infused oils are heated naturally by
the sun, Both types of oil can be used externally as massage oils or added to
creams and ointments. Infused oil should not be confused with essential oil,
which is an active constituent naturally present in a plant and has specific
medicinal properties and a distinct aroma. Essential oil may be added to an
infused oil to increase its medicinal efficacy.

Standard Quantity (infused oils)

250 g dried or 500 g fresh herb to 3 cups (750
ml) olive, sunflower, or other good-quality
vegetable oil

Storage

Store in sterilized, airtight, dark glass bottles
for up to I year; for the best results, use within
6 months.

Hot Infused Oils

Although hot infused oils can last up to a year,
they are most potent when used fresh. If only
using infused oils occasionally, make a smaller
quantity than the standard amount with the same
proportion of herb to oil. The wine press may be
replaced with a jug—when cool enough to touch,
squeeze the oil through the jelly bag as illustrated
in Cold Infused Oils below.

Many herbs make effective hot infused oils,
especially spicy herbs such as ginger (Zingiber
officinale, p. 155), cayenne (Capsicum frutescens,
p. 74), and pepper (Piper nigrum, p. 250). These oils
can be rubbed into the skin to relieve rheumatic
and arthritic pain, improve local blood flow, and
relax muscles. Other hot infused oils from leafy
herbs, such as comfrey (Symphytum officinale,
p. 138), speed wound healing. Oil infused with
mullein (Verbascum thapsus, p. 28 I) is used for
earache and ear infections, and chickweed (Stellaria
media, p. 272) ointment may be produced from
a hot infused oil (see p. 295).

I Stir the chopped herb and oil together in a
glass bowl over a saucepan of boiling water.
Cover and simmer gently for 2-3 hours.

2 Remove from the
heat and allow the
mixture to cool, then
pour into the wine press
(or jug if not available)
with a jelly bag in place.
Collect the strained oil in
a jug, pressing all the
liquid out of the herb.

3 Pour the infused oil
into clean, dark
glass bottles, using a
funnel. Seal and label
each bottle.

294

Cold Infused Oils

Making a cold infused oil is a slow process and
involves leaving a jar packed with herbs and oil
to stand for several weeks. Sunlight encourages
the plant to release its active constituents into
the oil. It is the most suitable method of oil
infusion for fresh plant material, especially the
more delicate parts, such as flowers. St. John’s
wort (Hypericum perforatum, p. 106), calendula
(Calendula offcinalis, p. 73), and melilot (A/le/z/otus
ofpcinalis, p. 234) are three of the most
commonly produced cold infused oils. St. John’s
wort oil is anti-inflammatory and analgesic, and
may be applied topically or taken internally (after
consulting an herbalist) for peptic ulceration.

Olive oil is particularly suitable for cold
infusion as it rarely turns rancid. The intensity
of sunlight and length of time an herb is infused
affects the concentration of its medicinal
constituents. For greater strength, add the
extracted oil to a fresh supply of herbs and
infuse again.

1 Place the herb in a clear
glass jar. Pour in oil until it
completely covers the herb,
close the jar, and shake well.
Place the jar in a sunny spot,
such as on a windowsill, and
leave for 2-6 weeks.

2 Pour the oil and herb
mixture into a jelly bag,
secured to the rim of a jug or
bowl with string (or use a
wine press as pictured above
in hot infused oils). Allow the
oil to filter through the bag.

3 Squeeze out the remaining
oil from the bag. Pour the
infused oil into dark glass
bottles, label, and store.
Alternatively, repeat the whole
process with the infused oil
and fresh herbs.

Ointments

Ointments contain oils or fats heated with herbs and, unlike creams, contain no
water. As a result, ointments form a separate layer on the surface of the skin.
They protect against injury or inflammation of damaged skin and carry active
medicinal constituents, such as essential oils, to the affected area. Ointments
are useful in conditions such as hemorrhoids or where protection is needed
from moisture, as in chapped lips and diaper rash.

Standard Quantity

60 g dried or 150 g fresh herb (or mixture
of herbs) to 500 g of petroleum jelly or soft
paraffin wax

Standard Application

Apply a little 3 times a day

Storage

Store in sterilized, dark glass jars with lids for up
to 3 months.

Ointments can be made with dozens of bases
and they vary in consistency, depending on the
constituents and proportions used. The simplest
way to make a soft, all-purpose ointment is to use
petroleum jelly or soft paraffin wax (other methods
are explained below). Petroleum jelly is impermeable
to water and provides a protective barrier for the
skin. Single herbs or mixtures of herbs may be
used as required, provided they are finely cut, and
essential oil can be stirred into the ointment just
before straining.

Different Consistencies
A solid and relatively grease-free ointment will
spread easily and is useful for preparations such as
lip balms. This may be made by using alternatives
to mineral oils. Melt 140 g of coconut oil with
120 g of beeswax and 100 g of powdered herb.
Simmer gently for 90 minutes in a glass bowl set
in a pan of boiling water or a double boiler, then
strain and pour into jars.

A less solid ointment, for conditions such as skin
rashes, may be made by combining olive oil and
beeswax. Melt 60 g of beeswax with 2 cups (500
ml) of olive oil and 120 g of dried or 300 g of
fresh herb in a glass bowl. Cover and place in a
warm oven for 3 hours, then remove, strain, and
pour into jars. This ointment can also be made by
combining 2 cups (500 ml) of hot infused oil (see
p. 294) with 60 g of melted beeswax.

I Me/t the petroleum jelly or wax
in a glass bowl set in a pan of
boiling water, or use a double
boiler. Add the finely cut herb
and simmer for 15 minutes,
stirring continuously.

3 Wearing rubber gloves, squeeze as much of the
hot herb mixture as possible through the bag into
the jug.

2 Pour the herb mixture
into a jelly bag secured
to the rim of a jug with
string, and allow the liquid
to flter through.

P

4 Quickly pour the molten
ointment into jars before
it sets in the jug. Place the
lid on each jar without
securing it firmly. When
cool, tighten the lids
and label.

Poultices

A poultice is a mixture of fresh, dried, or powdered herbs that is applied to an
affected area. Poultices are used to ease nerve or muscle pains, sprains, or broken
bones, and to draw pus from infected wounds, ulcers, or boils.

Standard Quantity

Sufficient herb to cover the affected area

Standard Application

Apply a new poultice every 2-3 hours. Repeat
as often as required.

A poultice of self-heal (Prunella vulgaris, p. 256)
relieves sprains and fractures, while St. John’s wort
(Hypericum perforatum, p. 106) can help ease muscle
or nerve pains.

Drawing Boils & Infected Wounds

Slippery elm powder (Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
mixed with calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73)
tincture or myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85)
tincture makes a useful poultice for drawing boils
and wounds.

1 Simmer the herb for 2 minutes. Squeeze out any
excess liquid, rub some oil on the affected area to
prevent sticking, and apply the herb while hot.

2 bandage the
herb securely
in place using gauze or
cotton strips. Leave on for
up to 3 hours, as required.

295

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Creams

Making a cream involves combining oil or fat and water in an emulsion. If the
process is rushed, the oil and water may separate. Unlike ointments, creams
blend with the skin and have the advantage of being cooling and soothing
while at the same time allowing the skin to breathe and sweat naturally. They
can, however, deteriorate quite quickly and are best stored in dark, airtight
jars in a refrigerator.

Standard Quantity

30 g dried or 75 g fresh herb, 150 g emulsifying
wax, 70 g glycerine, and l A cup (80 ml) water

Standard Dosage

Rub a little into the affected area 2-3 times a day

Storage

Store in sterilized, airtight, dark glass jars in a
refrigerator for up to 3 months.

Small quantities of additional ingredients such as
tinctures, powders, and essential oils can be added
to a cream before or after it is put in jars. Adding
an essential oil, such as I ml of tea tree (Melaleuca
alternifolia, p. I 12), to V% cup (100 ml) of cream,
counters mold growth and lengthens shelf life, as
does I tsp (5 ml) of borax. Other recipes for
making cream use infusions, tinctures, or infused
oils.

I Me/t the emulsifying
wax in a glass
bowl set in a pan
of boiling water,
or a double boiler.

Add the glycerine,
water, and herb
while stirring, and
simmer for 3 hours.

2 Strain the mixture through a wine press or Q With a small knife or spatula, place the set cream

a jelly bag. Stir slowly but continuously until O into dark glass jars. Tighten the lids and label. Store

it cools and sets. in a refrigerator as soon as possible.

Compresses & Lotions

Lotions are water-based herbal preparations such as infusions, decoctions,
or diluted tinctures that are used to bathe inflamed or irritated skin.
Compresses are cloths soaked in a lotion and held against the skin. Lotions
and compresses are both simple ways to use herbs externally and can be very
effective in relieving swelling, bruising, and pain, soothing inflammation and
headaches, and cooling fevers.

After an accident or sports injury, bruising and
swelling can often be reduced or prevented
if a hot compress is swiftly applied, provided
the skin is unbroken. Cold compresses are
particularly useful in soothing inflammation,
cooling fevers, and easing headaches. Both hot
and cold compresses should be frequently
soaked and reapplied for maximum benefit.

296

Applying a Lotion

As specified, make an infusion or decoction
(see p. 29 I), and strain it well. Alternatively,
dilute a tincture with water. Soak a clean cloth
in the lotion and wring it out thoroughly. Then
gently bathe the affected area with the cloth
(rather than laying it on the skin as you would
a compress).

Applying a Compress

I Wash your hands thoroughly and soak a soft cloth
or clean washcloth in the lotion. Wring out the
excess liquid. Before applying, rub some oil on the
affected area to prevent sticking.

Standard Quantity of Lotion

2 cups (500 ml) infusion or decoction, or 5 tsp
(25 ml) tincture in 2 cups (500 ml) water

Standard Application of
Compress or Lotion

Use as required. Prepare a fresh compress or
lotion when it cools (if hot) or when it dries
(if cool).

Storage

Store lotions in sterilized bottles, with lids, in a
refrigerator for up to 2 days.

2 Place the compress against the affected area. For
pain and swellings, secure the compress with
plastic film and safety pins and leave for up to 1-2
hours. Reapply as required.

Other Preparations

Different herbal preparations suit different ailments. Most of the following
preparations provide localized relief. Steam inhalations, for example, help
clear various respiratory complaints; gargles and mouthwashes soothe sore
throats and mouth ulcers; massage oils can ease aching muscles; and skin
washes relieve inflamed skin conditions.

Steam Inhalations

Steam inhalations are an effective way to clear
congestion and relieve sinusitis, hay fever, and
bronchial asthma. The combination of steam and
antiseptic ingredients clears the airways
throughout the respiratory system.

To make Pour I quart of freshly boiled water into
a large bowl, add 5-10 drops of essential oil, and
stir well. Alternatively, make an infusion of 25 g of
herb to I quart of water, brew for 15 minutes, and
pour into a bowl. Cover the head and bowl with a
towel, close the eyes, and inhale the steam for
about 10 minutes or until the preparation
cools. After a steam inhalation, it
is advisable to stay in a warm
room for 15 minutes to allow
the airways to adjust and
any congestion to clear.

V >

Inhalations
using essential
oil relieve many
respiratory complaints.

Gargles & Mouthwashes

Gargles and mouthwashes usually contain astringent
herbs, which tighten the mucous membranes of the
mouth and throat. Astringent herbs such as rhatany
(Krcmeria triandra, p. 225) and myrrh (Commiphora
molmol, p. 85), can be made more palatable and
more effective for sore throats by adding a little
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101) or a pinch of
cayenne pepper (Capsicum frutescens, p. 74) to the
preparation. As gargles and mouthwashes are made
from infusions, decoctions, or diluted tinctures, they
can generally be swallowed for internal treatment.
Ensure you do not exceed the daily internal dose
of an herb.

To make Make an infusion (see p. 29 I ) but allow it
to stand for 15-20 minutes in order to increase its

astringency. Strain, then gargle, or rinse the mouth
with a cupful. Alternatively, use a decoction (p. 291)
or dilute about I tsp (5 ml) of tincture in 1/3 cup
(100 ml) of hot water and use in the same way.
Repeat as often as required unless specified.

Pessaries & Suppositories

Pessaries and suppositories are waxy pellets
containing essential oil or fine powder. They are
used when oral medicine is likely to be broken
down during digestion before reaching its intended
site. Pessaries are inserted into the vagina and
suppositories into the anus, where they melt at
body temperature. The herb is quickly absorbed
into the bloodstream, providing fast relief. It is best
to buy ready-made suppositories.

To make pessaries Use a pessary mold or make 24
molds from cooking foil shaped around a
thimble. Mix 10 g of soft soap, 2 tbsp plus 2 tsp
(50 ml) of glycerine and 2 tbsp (40 ml) of
methylated spirits and pour into the molds. Leave
for a few minutes to coat the molds, then pour out
the excess and leave to harden. Melt 20 g of cocoa
butter; remove from the heat, and add 30 drops of
essential oil or 5 g of powder. Pour into the shells
and leave to set for 3 hours, before removing the
pessaries. Store in a cool place in a pot lined with
greaseproof paper for up to 3 months.

Essential Oils

Essential oils can be used in massage to soothe minor
aches and pains. Before use, they should be diluted
with a carrier oil as they can irritate the skin. Essential
oils deteriorate rapidly after dilution, so it is best to
mix small quantities as you need them.

For massage Mix 5-10 drops of essential oil with
I tbsp of carrier oil, such as wheatgerm
or almond oil, and massage gently into
the skin.

Oil burner Use 5-10 drops of neat
essential oil mixed with water. Burn
for 30 minutes.

Infusions made with
antiseptic herbs make
useful gargles and
mouthwashes for sore
throats and mouth ulcers.

Essential oils are

used in baths and
oil burners, and in
massage to relieve
tension and stress.

The eyebath is applied to the affected eye and the head is
tilted well back.

Baths & Skin Washes

Herbal baths and skin washes can relieve many
conditions, including aching limbs and stuffy
sinuses. They are made from diluted essential oils
or infusions. Eyebaths soothe sore, inflamed, or
irritated eyes.

To make an herbal bath Add 2 cups (500 ml) of
strained infusion (see p. 291) or 5-10 drops of
essential oil to a running bath.

To make a skin wash Make an infusion, strain it,
and bathe the affected area.

To make an eyebath Make a small quantity of an
infusion or use an herbal teabag. Strain the liquid
carefully into a sterilized eyebath. Alternatively, add
2-3 drops of a tincture to an eyebath filled with
water that has just boiled. Allow to cool and place
the eyebath firmly over the eye. Tip the head back
and bathe the eye by continuously blinking. Repeat
up to 3 times a day.

General cautions Eyebaths should be very weak, so as
not to sting the eyes. Always use boiled, cooled water in a
sterilized container. Do not bathe eyes over a period of
more than 2-3 weeks at a time. If bathing eyes frequently,
add a tiny pinch of salt to each eyebath to counter
leaching of salts and minerals from the eye.

Cold Macerations

Heat destroys the active constituents of some
herbs, and a cold maceration is more appropriate
than a decoction.

To make Pour 2 cups (500 ml) of cold water over
25 g of herb and leave to stand overnight. Strain
and use as you would a decoction

Juices

The juices extracted from many herbs can be taken
internally or applied externally.

To make Pulp the plant, preferably using a
mechanical juicer. Otherwise use a food processor.
Squeeze the pulp through a jelly bag to collect the
juice. Some herbs need to be cooked in orderto
extract their juice.

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Using Herbal Remedies Safely

One reason that herbal remedies are so popular is that plant medicines are
safer and cause fewer side effects than conventional ones. However, herbal
remedies are not always safe, and—like medicines of every kind—-they need
to be used with care.

Poor-quality material is used or the herb has
been poorly prepared. If you are making up your
own remedy follow the recommended methods
for storage and preparation (see Harvesting &
Processing, pp. 288-289). If buying over the counter;
check the section on Quality Control (see p. 17) for
advice on purchasing good-quality products.

The wrong herbal remedy is being used. You can

avoid this problem if you stick to using well-known
herbs and take them to treat the conditions for
which they are usually recommended. Ginger
(Zingiber officinale, p. 155) and sweet flag (Acorus
calamus, p. 57) both help to relieve nausea and
indigestion, but ginger is an altogether safer
medicine—it is better known, is a common
treatment for motion and morning sickness, and,
unlike sweet flag, has no known side effects.

What Can Go Wrong?

Following a few simple rules will normally ensure
that the worst that happens when taking an herbal
medicine is that there is no improvement in your
condition. Nevertheless, there are situations in which
herbal remedies can cause damage, and several
medicinal herbs have been shown to interact with
conventional medicines. In very rare circumstances
people have become seriously ill or have died from
taking herbal medicines, though in almost every
case the problem has resulted from one of the
following safety factors being ignored. If at any time
you think that you are reacting badly to an herbal
medicine, stop taking it immediately, and contact a
qualified herbalist or naturopath, or your doctor.

How Problems Can Occur

The wrong herb is used due to mistaken
identification. Usually, when herbs are bought over
the counter you have no need to worry, as the
necessary checks have been made to ensure it
has been correctly identified. If you are harvesting

Ragwort is a toxic plant and,
with its yellow flowers, easily
mistaken for St.John's wort.

The herbal remedy interacts with other
medicines. Herbal remedies are medicines, so
it should come as no surprise that conventional
medicines can interact with them. Several herbs
are known to interact with conventional medicines.
St. John’s wort, for example, speeds up the rate
at which the liver breaks down a range of drugs,
including certain antibiotics, antiepileptics, and
immune-suppressants. This reduces their

Dong quai has been shown
to thin the blood and is
known to interact with
conventional anticoagulants
such as warfarin.

herbs from the wild, you must be certain
what herb it is that you are collecting. For
example, ragwort (Senecio jacobaea ), which
is very toxic to the liver, can easily be
mistaken for St. Johns wort (Hypericum
perforatum, p. 106): both grow in open
areas and produce clusters of bright
yellow flowers in the summer. In rare
cases, the physical act of picking certain
highly toxic herbs could be dangerous,
because absorption takes place across the skin.
Hemlock (Conium maculatum, p. 194), for example,
is so toxic that serious side effects can result from
simply handling the plant.

The wrong part of an herb is used. It is important
to use the correct part of the herb. Sometimes
one part of a plant is safe, while all other parts
are poisonous. For example, while the potato
tuber (Solanum tuberosum, p. 271) makes good,
nutritious food, all other parts of the plant are
highly toxic.

effectiveness within the body, and in extreme
situations could threaten life. It is also inadvisable
to take St. John’s wort at the same time as other
antidepressants. A number of herbs, notably
dong quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63), interact with
anticoagulant drugs, such as warfarin and
clopidogrel. These drugs are prescribed to prevent
blood clotting. Herbal products containing these
herbs will interact with anticoagulants and increase
the risk of internal or external bleeding. Always tell
health-care professionals what medicines you are
using—both herbal and conventional. If you are
taking medicines prescribed by your doctor, it is
always sensible to seek advice before starting to
take herbal remedies.

The herbal remedy causes an allergic reaction.

By and large, allergic reactions to herbs result from
touching the herb (contact dermatitis) and from
breathing in pollen or powdered herb (airborne
allergies). Some plants are well known for causing
contact dermatitis—rue (Ruta graveolens, p. 265)
for example—and should not be handled by those
prone to allergies. Some powdered herbs can
stimulate sneezing attacks in the sensitive—for
example linden (Tilia spp., p. 277). In some cases,
herbal medicines may trigger allergic reactions
within the body. This kind of response is more
worrying, and if you are prone to allergies it is
advisable to see a qualified herbalist before taking
all but the most common herbs.

Other treatment is needed. Sometimes herbal
medicine is not the appropriate form of treatment.
If you have an acute illness or injury, are seriously ill,
or do not recover as expected after taking an
herbal remedy, do not delay —seek professional
advice or emergency treatment.

Remedies for Common Ailments

Herbal knowledge is continuing to grow as more people choose herbs as
an alternative to pharmaceutical drugs. The following remedies are safe and
effective treatments for a range of common ailments; but, like all medicines,
they must be treated with respect. The suggestions given here are mostly quite
straightforward. However, if you are unsure about what to do, always seek
professional advice (see p. 320). For instructions on howto make herbal
preparations, see pp. 290-297.

Essential Information

Before using remedies read the following.

Dosage

■ Except in Infants & Children (see p. 3 18), all dosages
given are for adults.

■ Do not exceed the stated dose; doubling it will
not make the medicine twice as effective.

■ Before taking a remedy, check the cautions in the
relevant herb entry (see pp. 56-283).

■ Do not take more than 2 internal remedies at any
one time or more than I internal and I external
remedy for the same complaint, unless specified.
Where different forms of a remedy are given (e.g.
take tincture or infusion), the first is preferable.

How Long to Take Remedies

Take remedies until symptoms disappear. If there is
no improvement within 2-3 weeks, if the condition
worsens, or if in doubt, consult a professional
practitioner (see p. 320).

Professional Advice

■ Advice is given on when to seek professional
guidance. Consult a professional if taking a remedy
for over 3 weeks.

Infants & Children

■ Do not give babies under 6 months any
internal herbal (or other) medicine without
professional advice.

■ Infants & Children, p. 3 18, gives children’s dosages.

Remedies elsewhere can be used for children
under 12. Reduce doses as follows:

■ 6-12 months old— Mo adult dose

■ 1-6 years old—M adult dose

■ 7-12 years old—M adult dose.

Older People

Older adults, due to slower metabolism, may
require less than the standard dose. Those over
70 should usually take 3 M of the adult dose.

Pregnancy

■ During the first 3 months of pregnancy, avoid
all medicines, herbal or otherwise, unless
absolutely essential.

■ Avoid alcoholic tinctures in pregnancy.

■ The herbs mentioned in Pregnancy (see p. 3 17)
are safe to use. Many of the remedies elsewhere
in this section are also safe, but some are not.
Always check the cautions for the remedy and in
the relevant herb entry (see pp. 56-283) before
taking an herb during pregnancy.

Prescription Medicine

As explained opposite, some herbs are known
to interact with pharmaceutical drugs; others
may interact in as-yet unknown ways. If you
are taking a prescribed medicine, consult a
professional practitioner before taking an herb,
and do not discontinue any medicine without
their approval.

Infusions make effective remedies; some
are also relaxing or refreshing drinks.

Herbal Preparations

■ All quantities are for dried herbs unless specified.

■ Where more than one part of an herb is used,
the instructions specify which part to use. Only
use that part. Do not use seeds sold for
horticultural purposes.

■ Unless specified otherwise, preparations are
made with standard quantities of dried herb,
as follows:

Infusions (to make, see p. 291). Use a teaspoon of
herb to a cup of water, or make enough for 3-4
doses using 20 g of herb to 2 cups (500 ml) of
water. Use a covered container to retain the herb’s
valuable volatile oils.

Decoctions (to make, see p. 291). Use 20 g herb
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water.

Inhalations (to make, see p. 297). Add 5-10 drops
essential oil to I quart (I liter) of steaming hot
water or use an infusion.

Lotions (to make, see p. 296). Use 2 cups (500 ml)
infusion or decoction, or 5 tsp (25 ml) tincture
diluted in 2 cups (500 ml) of water.

Tablets or capsules (to make, see p. 292). Many
herbs are available over the counter in both forms.
Take according to the instructions on the packet.

Tinctures (to make, see p. 292). Some tinctures
are available ready-made. Take tinctures with cold
water unless specified. Sometimes the number
of drops recommended is given as a range, e.g.
2CM0 drops. In these cases, start with the lowest
amount and increase by 5-10 drops per dose
as required.

Essential Oils

Do not take essential oils internally unless advised
to do so by a professional practitioner. For
external use, dilute essential oils with a carrier oil,
such as sunflower or almond, in a ratio of I part
essential oil to 20 parts carrier oil; e.g., 5 drops
essential oil to I tsp (5 ml) carrier oil. For a bath,
add 5-10 drops of neat essential oil to the
running water. To use essential oils in massage,
see p. 297.

Other Information

For other preparations, weighing & measuring,
and equipment, see pp. 291-297.

Self-help

Lifestyle, diet and exercise advice is given in this
section. In general, these suggestions do not
provide a “quick-fix” solution and need to be
followed longterm if they are to be effective.
They should be used in addition to the
recommended herbal remedy. By ensuring that
your body has the right nutrition and level of
fitness, you protect yourself against many ailments
such as infections and circulatory problems, as
well as increase your chances of a speedy and
effective recovery.

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

Allergies

Allergies often develop when the body’s immune system
overreacts to an external irritant such as pollen, insect stings, and
certain plants, or internal substances such as chemicals and foods,
The allergens trigger a reaction in those who have a built-in or
natural sensitivity. In the longterm, allergies are treated by both
reducing contact with allergens (if known) and working to reduce
the body’s oversensitivity. Herbal remedies can bring relief to some
allergic states and are helpful in gradually reducing allergic reactions. See also
Skin Rashes, p. 303.

Nettle

(Urtica dioica)

■ Life-threatening allergies, such as asthma.
Consult a professional practitioner priorto
taking any herbal remedies for such conditions

■ Any allergy that shows signs of deterioration
after taking an herbal remedy

Allergic Rhinitis, Including Hay Fever

Allergic rhinitis is an umbrella term for allergic
reactions to irritants such as pollution, dust,
or pollen. Allergic rhinitis may occur year
round, while hay fever is usually caused by
seasonal grass or pollens. Symptoms include
sneezing; copious nasal mucus; sinus congestion;
watery, irritated eyes; and even asthmalike
wheezing. Self-treatment will help relieve mild
conditions, but for severe attacks, consult
a professional practitioner who can prescribe
herbs such as ma huang ( Ephedra sinico, p. 95).
See also Congestion, Sinus Problems, & Earache,
p. 3 12.

Diet

Reduce your intake of or cut out mucus-forming
foods such as dairy, eggs, sugar, white flour, fatty
foods, and alcohol.

General Remedies

Herbs Nettle (Urtica dioica, p. 146), elderflower
(Sambucus nigra, p. 132)

Remedy Make a nettle infusion. Take I 2 A-2'A
cups (450-600 ml) a day for 3 months at a time.
Alternatively, make an infusion with I tsp of each
herb to I % cups (300 ml) of water and take daily
for 3 months at a time.

Herb Baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis, p. 134)
Remedy Make a decoction from the herb and
take I % cups (300 ml) a day.

Hay Fever

Herb Elderflower (Sambucus nigra, p. 132)
Remedy Make an infusion and take I 'A-1 2 A cups
(300-450 ml) a day. Take for a few months before,
as well as during, the hay fever season.

Allergic Rhinitis with Congestion

Herbs Eyebright (Euphrasia spp., p. 209),
common plantain (Plantago major, p. 25 I),
goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea, p. 271), boneset
(Eupatorium perfoliatum, p. 208)

Remedy Make an infusion with one or a mixture
of all of the herbs and drink up to 1% cups a day.

Note Use this remedy especially for copious, watery
mucus.

Herbs Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92),
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis, p. I 65),
elderflower (Sambucus nigra, p. 132), thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Take I tsp of equal parts of each
tincture 3 times daily with warm water.

Note Use this remedy especially for thick
yellow/green mucus and sinus congestion.

0 Eczema

Characterized by red, inflamed skin, eczema
causes irritation, flaking, scaling, and tiny blisters.
Although it is often the result of an allergic
reaction to certain substances, eczema can also
be inherited, result from prolonged contact
with an irritant, or it may simply appear for
an unknown reason. It is best to consult a
professional practitioner as eczema is difficult
to self-treat. However, the following remedies,
taken for at least a week, can bring relief. Two
remedies may be used at once. Chickweed
reduces soreness or itchiness, and oats can be
used to impart a soothing, emollient effect to
bathwater. See also Skin Rashes, p. 303.

Self-help

To avoid scratching, cover the affected area
with an absorbent, non-irritating material such
as cotton.

Q General caution If there is no improvement,
or if the condition deteriorates, consult a
professional practitioner.

General Remedies

Herbs Peppermint (Mentha x piperita, p. I 14),
chickweed (Stellaria media, p. 272)

Remedy I Make peppermint lotion by infusing
I tsp of herb to 3 A cup (150 ml) of water. Leave
for 10 minutes, then strain and cool. Use to wash
gently over the affected skin 2-3 times a day.
Remedy 2 Apply chickweed ointment, cream,
or freshly squeezed juice up to 5 times a day.
Option Add 2 drops of peppermint oil to
I tsp of any of the chickweed preparations.

Herb Gotu kola (Centella asiatica, p. 76)
Remedy Dust the affected area with powder
2-3 times a day. Alternatively, mix the powder
with enough water to make a thick paste and
spread over the affected area 1-2 times a day.

Eczema with Weeping Skin
Herb Witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana, p. 102)
Remedy Apply lotion or cream up to 5 times
a day (the lotion is preferable). Alternatively,
make a decoction with 2 tsp of leaves to 3 A cup

(150 ml) of water. Leave for 15 minutes, strain,
and cool. Use as a wash up to 5 times a day.

Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita, p. 77)

Remedy Make an infusion using 50 g of herb
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Apply directly to
the itchy area when cool, or add the hot
infusion to a warm bath and soak in it for at
least 20 minutes.

Herb Oats (Avena sativa, p. 175)

Remedy Fill a muslin (or similar) bag with
milled oats and place under a hot tap while
running a bath. Relax in the bath for
5-10 minutes.

Mild Asthma, Wheezing, &

Asthma is usually triggered by an allergic
reaction to substances such as pollen, dust,
animal hair, or certain foods, but may also be
related to an infection. The listed remedies will
relieve immediate symptoms, but in orderto
find the cause of your ailment, or for long-term
treatment, it is best to consult an herbalist. All
the herbal remedies that are suggested here can
be taken alongside conventional treatment.

Herbs such as nettle, thyme, cramp bark, and
echinacea help to ease breathing, while essential
oil of German chamomile reduces inflammation.

Q General cautions Seek professional help for asthma.
Do not stop using steroidal or other inhalants. Their
use should be phased out gradually and only with
professional guidance.

Shortness of Breath

Wheezing & Shortness of Breath
Herbs Nettle (Urtica dioica, p. 146), thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Make an infusion using 15 g of each herb
to 3 cups of water and drink throughout the day.

Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,

P- 77)

Remedy Make an infusion with 2 heaping tsp of
the herb to 3 A cup (150 ml) of water and leave to
stand for 10 minutes in a covered saucepan. Remove
the lid, inhale the steam, and strain and drink the tea.

Option Use the essential oil in a steam
inhalation, or inhale 2 drops of undiluted oil placed
on a handkerchief.

Herb Baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis, p. 134)
Remedy Make a decoction and take up to
11/4 cups (300 ml) a day.

Breathing Difficulty & Tight Chest
Herb Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150)
Remedy Take I tsp of tincture with water up
to 8 times a day for 3 days, then reduce the dose
to a maximum of I tsp 3 times a day for 7 days.

Mild Bronchial Asthma from
Colds & Chest Infections
Herb Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92)
Remedy Take tablets or capsules, or A tsp
of tincture with water 2-3 times a day.

Circulatory Problems

To maintain good health, the body's ten trillion cells need
to be bathed in fluid that brings them vital nutrients and
removes waste products. When this process is undermined
by poor circulation, the body may react with conditions such
as raised blood pressure, which places a long-term strain
on the heart. A high-vegetable, low-sugar diet and regular
aerobic exercise help to keep the heart active and the arteries clear of fatty
deposits that can clog up their linings. A number of herbs act preventively to
sustain good circulation—few more so than garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59).

Witch Hazel

(Hamamelis virgin iana)

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Severe chest pain

■ Palpitations lasting several minutes

■ Hot, swollen, or ulcerated tender veins, or
dark red discoloration of the skin or veins

■ Fainting or dizziness with weakness,
numbness, or tingling in any part of the body

E3 Anemia

There are several types of anemia. Iron
deficiency anemia, caused by blood loss
from a wound or menstrual bleeding, can be
countered with herbs. Bitter herbs, such as
gentian, improve the absorption of nutrients,
and nettle contains plenty of iron. Increase
your intake of other green herbs that
contain iron.

©General caution Seek professional advice to
determine the type of anemia you have before
home treatment.

General Remedies

Herbs Gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99), wormwood
(Artemisia absinthium, p. 66)

Remedy Take 2-5 drops of either tincture with
water, half an hour before meals.

Caution Do not take wormwood during pregnancy.

Herb Chiretta (Swertia chirata, p. 273)

Remedy Take 5-10 drops of tincture with water
3 times a day before meals.

Anemia due to Heavy
Menstrual Bleeding
Herb Nettle (Urtica dioica, p. 146)

Remedy Make an infusion using 25 g of herb to
3 cups (750 ml) of water. Sip the whole dose at
intervals throughout the day.

See also Heavy Menstrual Bleeding —

Four Things Soup remedy, p. 3 15.

High Blood Pressure & Arteriosclerosis

Mild cases of high blood pressure and
arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
can benefit from herbs. Garlic thins the blood,
reduces fatty deposits, and lowers blood pressure;
beetroot and ginkgo aid circulation, reduce blood
pressure, and prevent arteriosclerosis; and ginger
improves circulation, especially to the capillaries.

©General caution Seek professional advice, especially
if already taking medication for a circulatory condition.

General Remedies
Herbs Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59), beet
(Beta vulgaris, p. 178), pomegranate (Punica
granatum, p. 259)

Remedy Take a garlic tablet or eat I -2 fresh
garlic cloves each day. Drink 'A cup (125 ml) of
beetroot or pomegranate juice once a day.

Note These are most effective when used to support a
healthy circulation and prevent illness.

Herb Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba, p. 100)

Remedy Take tablets or IT tsp of fluid extract
with water twice a day for approximately 2-3
months at a time.

Herb Ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155)
Remedy Grate I tsp of fresh ginger into your
food each day.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

30

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Palpitations & Panic Attacks

Palpitations occur when the heart suddenly E

beats faster or irregularly They can result from h
stress, anxiety, and nervous tension; however, p
they may also be caused simply by drinking too li
much caffeine (in tea, coffee, and cola drinks). In d
rare cases, palpitations indicate a heart problem. ^
They are a key symptom of panic attacks, which ^
are characterized by sudden, acute feelings of ^
fear and anxiety. Linden flowers and valerian ^
root are especially relaxing and calming for the ^
nervous system, specifically helping to reduce ^

underlying anxiety. ai

© General caution Seek immediate professional
advice if palpitations last for several minutes.

Palpitations

Herb Linden (Tilia spp., p. 277)

Remedy Make an infusion with up to 20 g of
linden to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Divide into 3-4
doses and drink throughout the day.

Herb Dan shen (Salvia miltiorrhiza, p. 130)
Remedy Make a decoction and take
3-4 doses during the day for up to I week.
Alternatively, take half the daily dose for up
to 2-3 weeks.

Cautions Do not take dan shen with anticoagulant or
antiplatelet drugs, or during pregnancy.

Panic Attacks

Herbs Linden (Tilia spp., p. 277), valerian
(Valeriana officinalis, p. 148)

Remedy Make an infusion using I tsp of linden
and Vi tsp of powdered valerian to 34 cup
(150 ml) of water. Drink 2!4 cups (600 ml) a day.

Herbs Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca, p. 227),
linden (Tilia spp., p. 277)

Remedy Make an infusion of motherwort or
make an infusion using V. tsp of each herb to
I cup (150 ml) of water. Drink up to 4 cups
(600 ml) of either remedy a day.

Caution Do not take motherwort during pregnancy.

Cold Extremities & Chilblains

Poor circulation can cause discomfort and painful
chilblains (sores caused by poor local blood
flow) on the fingers and toes. By stimulating
the circulation and getting more “warmth” into
the system with herbs and exercise, the blood
flow to the hands and feet is improved. Hot,
acrid herbs, such as cayenne or ginger, stimulate
the flow of blood through the arteries, helping
to prevent the development of chilblains.

Exercise

Aerobic exercise is often the key to improving
this condition.

©General caution Seek professional advice if fingers
and toes frequently become cold and numb.

Poor Circulation to the Hands & Feet
Herb Cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, p. 74)
Remedy Take cayenne tablets in winter.

Option Add a pinch of cayenne powder or
cayenne sauce to every main meal.

Caution Do not take tablets during pregnancy.

Herbs Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150),
northern prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum,
p. 153)

Remedy I Make a decoction using 15 g of cramp
bark to 3 cups (750 ml) of water and take 3 doses
each day.

Remedy 2 Mix 5 g of prickly ash and 10 g of
cramp bark and make a decoction using 3 cups
(750 ml) of water. Take 3 doses each day.

Caution Do not take prickly ash during pregnancy.

Chilblains

Herbs Ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155),
lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82), echinacea (Echinacea
spp., p. 92)

Remedy (Internal) Grate I tsp of fresh
ginger into your food each day. Alternatively,
drink % cup (70 ml) of ginger wine each day.
Remedy (External) Apply either fresh ginger,
undiluted lemon juice, or neat echinacea tincture
to unopened chilblains twice a day.

Note The external remedy helps to prevent blistering
and weeping. Once the blister opens you can continue
to apply, but it will sting upon contact.

Varicose Veins & Hemorrhoids

Varicose veins result from a weakness, or
increased pressure, in the veins. This causes the
thin supporting walls of the veins to bulge out,
resulting in distended veins and the pooling of
blood. Hemorrhoids are usually caused by
constipation. Many herbs can be of use in
relieving these conditions. Distilled witch hazel is
an excellent astringent, and yarrow has healing,
astringent, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Self-help

Home treatment should aim to relieve pressure
on the veins. Varicose vein sufferers should
avoid tight clothing around the waist or legs.

To ease hemorrhoids, try to maintain regular
bowel movements (see Constipation & Diarrhea,
p. 307).

General caution Do not massage or rub
varicose veins.

Varicose Veins

Herbs Witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana,
p. 102), calendula (Calendula offcinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Gently apply distilled witch hazel or
witch hazel cream or ointment to the affected area
I -2 times a day, or combine equal parts of the
creams of both herbs and apply 1-2 times a day.
NOTE This remedy is particularly effective on
painful varicose veins.

Herb Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56)

Remedy (External) Wash varicose veins
in a cool infusion, or apply the ointment
1-2 times a day.

Remedy (Internal) Make an infusion and leave
for 10 minutes. Take 34- 1 f4 cups (150-300 ml)
a day for up to 10 weeks.

Caution Do not take yarrow during pregnancy.

Hemorrhoids

Herbs Witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana,
p. 102), lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria,
p. 260), common oak (Quercus robur, p. 260),
calendula (Calendula offcinalis, p. 73)

Remedy I Apply either distilled witch hazel or
witch hazel ointment, or lesser celandine
ointment, I -2 times a day.

Remedy 2 Mix I tsp of common oak bark
powder with 214 tbsp of calendula ointment and
apply 1-2 times a day.

Difficult Passage of the Stool
& Painful Hemorrhoids
Herb Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
Remedy Take either slippery elm “food”

(see Acidity & Indigestion, p. 307) or tablets.

Herb Psyllium (Plantago spp., p. 123)

Remedy Take 1-2 tsp of seeds soaked in 34 cup
(150 ml) of water overnight, twice a day.

302

Skin Problems

The largest organ of the body, the skin protects against heat, cold,
infection, and trauma from the outside world. Although
continuously shedding its surface, the skin needs regular cleansing
and nourishing to remain healthy. Its ability to resist injury and
recover from damage largely depends on the health of the body as
a whole. While many minor skin problems respond promptly to
simple external remedies, severe or chronic skin conditions need internal
treatment and usually require professional advice. See also Eczema, p. 300.

Calendula

(Calendula officinalis)

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Changes to freckles, moles, or warts

■ Sudden swelling or allergic reaction

■ Non-minor burns, including sunburn

■ Shingles or suspected shingles

■ Boils that do not disperse or burst

■ Serious wounds, scrapes, bruising, bites,
and stings

□ Minor Bites, Stings, & Swellings

Inflamed, swollen areas of skin are a common
reaction to bites and stings. Although they can
be very uncomfortable, most only cause local
itching and inflammation, which usually subside
within a few hours. All the remedies listed will
help to ease irritation and soreness. For the
most effective relief, use both an external and
internal remedy. Lavender relieves irritation
as well as being an insect repellent, aloe vera
is soothing and healing, and both calendula
and St. John’s wort reduce inflammation.
Echinacea stimulates the immune system
and nettle is antiallergenic.

©General cautions Seek immediate professional
attention if prone to, or if there are signs of, extreme
allergic reactions, or if there is a sting in the mouth
and the throat starts to swell. Some stings and animal
bites are poisonous and may need inoculations and
immediate medical attention.

External Remedies
Herb Lavender (Lavandula officinalis, p. 108)
Remedy Rub fresh leaves, neat tincture, or
essential oil on and around the bite or sting.

Other uses This will also repel insects.

Herbs Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum, p. 241),
holy basil ( Ocimum tenuiflorum, p. I 16), sage (Salvia
officinalis, p. 131), thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)
Remedy Apply freshly squeezed juice from the
leaves of one of the herbs.

Herbs Aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60), calendula
(Calendula officinalis, p. 73), St. John’s wort
(Hypericum perforatum, p. 106)

Remedy Apply either aloe vera gel, calendula
ointment, cream, lotion, or tincture, or St. John’s
wort oil. To make the calendula lotion, infuse
2 heaping tbsp of calendula in 3 A cup (150 ml) of
water. Strain, cool, then apply.

Option Add 5 drops each of lavender (Lavandula

officinalis, p. 108) and German chamomile
(Chamomilla recutita, p. 77) essential oils to I tsp
of one of the above preparations.

Caution Do not apply chamomile oil in pregnancy.

Tip Apply neat lemon juice (Citrus limon, p. 82) if
there is nothing else available.

Internal Remedies

Herb Nettle (Urtica dioica, p. 146)

Remedy Make an infusion and drink 1 2 A cups
(450 ml) a day, or take I tsp of tincture with
water 3 times a day for up to 3 days.

Herb Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92)
Remedy Take tablets or tincture.

& Sunburn

Skin Rashes, Minor Burns,

More annoying than debilitating, skin rashes and
minor burns, including sunburn, usually clear up
without assistance, although herbal treatment
can speed recovery.

Hives (urticaria) are usually caused by an
allergic reaction, but can also be triggered by
heat, cold, or sunlight. They only last for a few
hours but will often recur. For the most
effective relief, apply chickweed cream and
take one of the internal remedies.

Skin rashes have many causes, such as allergy,
infection, irritation, bites, stings, and temperature
changes. Use these remedies to alleviate
itchiness and swelling.

Small-scale burns usually respond well to
herbal medicine, but even small burns may be
deep and can quickly become infected. Before
using a remedy, bathe the burned area in clean,
cold water and keep the area cool for up to 3
hours with a clean cotton cloth that has been
soaked in cold water.

©General caution If there is any sign of infection seek
professional advice.

Hives (Urticaria)

Herbs Nettle (Urtica dioica, p. 146), heartsease
(Viola tricolor, p. 282), calendula (Calendula
officinalis, p. 73)

Remedy (Internal) Drink an infusion of 5 g of
each herb and 3 cups (750 ml) of water regularly
during the day. Repeat for I week. If symptoms
persist, take for another week.

Herbs Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141),
yellow dock (Rumex crispus, p. 264), burdock
(Arctium lappa, p. 65)

Remedy (Internal) Make a decoction with
5 g of each root to 3 cups (750 ml) of water.
Drink I % cups (300 ml) a day and repeat for at
least I week.

Caution Do not take yellow dock in pregnancy.

Herb Chickweed (Stellaria media, p. 272)
Remedy (External) Apply cream as required.

Inflamed Skin Rashes

Herbs Calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73),
comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138)

Remedy Apply calendula or comfrey ointment,
cream, or lotion to troubled areas 2-4 times
a day. For the lotion, make an infusion, strain,
cool, and then apply.

Caution Do not apply comfrey to broken skin.

Weeping Skin

Herbs Aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60), witch hazel
(Hamamelis virginiana, p. 102)

Remedy Apply aloe vera gel or distilled witch
hazel or witch hazel ointment to the affected
area 2-4 times a day.

Minor Burns & Sunburn

Herbs Aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60), lavender
(Lavandula officinalis, p. 108)

Remedy Apply aloe vera gel or neat lavender
essential oil to the affected area as needed.

Herb Calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Infuse I heaping tbsp of herb in 3 A cup
(150 ml) of water Strain, cool, and apply as a
lotion to the affected area as required.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

t Minor Wounds & Bruises

Minor wounds, bruises, and grazes are part
of everyday life, and the remedies listed make
effective home treatments. Witch hazel is a very
good astringent for minor scrapes, bruises, and
swellings, protecting and soothing the damaged
area. Arnica can be used to relieve bruising, pain,
and swelling, and it combines well with witch
hazel. Wounds can be cleansed with aloe vera
gel which, like comfrey, is an excellent wound
healer. Comfrey ointment is helpful in clearing
old scars. See also Sprains & Fractures, p. 3 12.

© General caution Seek immediate medical attention
for serious or deep wounds, bruising, or scrapes,
especially if the pain has not considerably lessened
after 24 hours.

Cleansing Wounds

Herb Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56)

Remedy Make a yarrow lotion, allow to cool, and
use as a wash.

Herb Calendula (Calendula ofpcinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Make a calendula lotion with 2 heaping
tsp of herb to 3 A cup (150 ml) of water, or use the
tincture neat or diluted in water. Apply either
preparation to the wound.

Note Calendula tincture will sting strongly, but it has a
greater antiseptic action.

Herb Aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60)

Remedy Cleanse the wound with the gel
and cover with a dressing soaked in gel.

Change frequently.

Herb Witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana, p. 102)
Remedy Apply distilled witch hazel (available over
the counter) to the affected area 2-3 times a day.

Healing Wounds

Herbs Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138),
aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60)

Remedy Apply comfrey ointment at the edges
of the wound or, once a scab has formed, use a
comfrey poultice. Use aloe vera gel to cleanse
the wound (see left).

Caution Do not use comfrey on an open wound.

Bruises

Herbs Arnica (Arnica montana, p. 172), witch
hazel (Hamamelis virginiana, p. 102)

Remedy Apply arnica ointment to bruises and
swellings 2-3 times a day, or use distilled witch
hazel, as above.

Caution Do not use arnica on broken skin.

Cold Sores, Chicken Pox, Shingles, & Warts

Herbal medicine can help all these viral infections
that affect the skin.

Cold sores are caused by the herpes simplex
virus, and usually occur when the body has an
infection or has been exposed to sunshine or
wind. Tiny blisters form, mainly around the
nostrils and lips.

Shingles and chicken pox are the result of
a similar virus, causing sores to form all over the
body. Shingles are a sign that the nervous system
is run down and open to infection, so herbs that
support the nerves and the immune system as a
whole are as important as ones that work topically.
Warts, caused by the papilloma virus, can be
difficult to clear. With persistence, the remedies
here are often effective.

©General cautions Always consult a professional
practitioner if you have, or suspect you have, shingles.
Take professional advice if you notice a sudden change
to a wart.

Cold Sores, Chicken Pox, & Shingles
Herbs Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92), St. John’s
wort (Hypericum perforatum, p. 106)

Remedies Take 14 tsp of tincture of either
herb with water 2-3 times a day. Alternatively,
take echinacea tablets or capsules, or make
an infusion of St. John’s wort and drink up to
3 /4 cup (150 ml) a day.

Herbs Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59), ginger
(Zingiber offcinale, p. 155), lemon (Citrus
limon, p. 82)

Remedy (Internal) Eat 1-2 cloves of garlic and
I -2 slices (I g) of fresh ginger a day.

Remedy (External) Apply either fresh ginger; half
a clove of garlic, or lemon juice to unopened cold
sores, shingles, or pockmarks up to 6 times a day.

Herb Lemon balm (Me//sso ofpcinalis, p. 113)
Remedy (Internal) Make an infusion and
drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Remedy (External) Make a lotion by infusing
I l/itbsp of fresh or 3 tsp of dried leaves in
3 A cup (150 ml) of water for 10 minutes. Strain
and dab onto spots 3-5 times a day.

Warts

Herb Aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60)

Remedy Apply the gel directly to the wart 2-3
times a day for up to 3 months.

Herb Arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis, p. 276)
Remedy Apply neat tincture to the wart I -2
times a day for up to 3 months.

Fungal Skin Infections, Including Athlete’s Foot

Fungal skin infections are easily picked up through
physical contact, and can be hard to clear Athlete’s
foot is a fungus (tinea) that grows in the skin
between and under the toes, causing it to split
and peel away. This itchy, sore condition can be
difficult to treat at home.

Self-help

Keep feet dry and clean and do not wear
synthetic socks or tightly fitting shoes.

General Remedies
Herb Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138)
Remedy Make a poultice and firmly apply to the
affected area for 1-2 hours each day.

Caution Do not use comfrey on broken skin.

Herbs Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia, p. I 12),
clove (Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97), calendula
(Calendula ofpcinalis, p. 73), thyme (Thymus vulgaris,
p. 143)

Remedy Mix 5 drops of tea tree, clove, or
thyme essential oil with I tsp of calendula
ointment. Apply I -2 times a day.

Caution Do not use thyme oil during pregnancy.

Herb Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Rub on 14 clove 2-3 times a day.

Athlete’s Foot

Herbs Turmeric (Curcuma longa, p. 90),
calendula (Calendula ofpcinalis, p. 73)

Remedy Mix 'A tsp of turmeric powder with
3 tsp (15 ml) of calendula ointment. Rub in
between and under the toes each day.

304

Acne & Boils

Acne and boils are the result of local infection,
hormonal imbalance, or internal toxicity, which
cause inflammation of the hair follicles and, with
acne, sebaceous glands. They should be treated
on the surface of the skin and internally
Acne generally occurs during the teenage years
and results in whiteheads, pustules, and cysts,
usually on the face and back.

Boils are large, pus-filled areas of skin. They either
disperse or burst in a week. As boils are often
the body’s way of expelling toxins, recurrent
boils may indicate a weakened immune system.
They can also suggest diabetes or a deep-seated
bacterial infection.

Herbs such as tea tree and garlic are antiseptic
and antibiotic. Calendula and comfrey promote
healing, and comfrey helps to mend scarring.

Self-help

Increase intake of vitamin C and garlic.

QGeneral cautions Do not squeeze or burst boils
or acne pimples as the infection may spread. Seek
professional advice for recurrent boils.

External Remedies
Herbs Tea tree (Melaleuca altemifolia, p. I 12),
clove (Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97), garlic (Allium
sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Dab I drop of neat tea tree or clove
essential oil onto the pus-filled head of a boil or
pimple twice a day. Alternatively, cut a clove of
garlic in half and rub over the area twice a day.

Herb Calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Apply ointment or cream, or dab
undiluted tincture onto the pus-filled area
twice a day.

Herb Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138)
Remedy Apply comfrey ointment or cream to
the pus-filled area twice a day.

Caution Do not use comfrey on broken skin.

Herb Lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82)

Remedy Dab pure lemon juice onto the
pus-filled area, or dilute I tsp of lemon juice
with I tbsp of water and use as a skin wash
twice a day.

Herbs Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145),
calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73), myrrh
(Commiphora molmol, p. 85), echinacea
(Echinacea spp., p. 92)

Remedy Mix I level tsp of slippery elm
powder with sufficient calendula, myrrh, or
echinacea tincture to make a thick, smooth
paste. Place on and around the boil, and bandage
securely. Remove after 1-2 hours.

Note This remedy is especially useful for drawing
painful boils and splinters.

Internal Remedies

Herbs Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141),
burdock (Arctium lappa, p. 65)

Remedy Make a decoction using 5 g of
burdock root and 10 g of dandelion root
with 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Divide into 3
doses and drink during the day.

Herb Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92)
Remedy Take echinacea tablets or capsules,
or make a decoction of 10 g of root to 3 cups
(750 ml) of water and drink during the day.

Digestive Disorders

Everyone falls prey to certain digestive problems and, for those
with weak or unsettled digestion, life can be miserable. Poor
digestive health usually results from insufficient digestive
secretions, infections (such as gastroenteritis), disordered gut
bacteria, stress, and anxiety. Herbal medicines can improve the
complex functioning of the digestive system, helping to relieve
acidity, nausea, and bloating. Eating simple, wholesome food can be beneficial,
but it is difficult to generalize about diet. Some conditions may require fasting,
while in other cases, a certain type of food might need to be avoided.

Ginger

Zingiber officinale

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Difficulty in swallowing

■ Severe pain

■ Vomiting blood

■ Blood in the stool

Important Note

For continuing or recurrent digestive
problems, seek professional advice to
determine the cause.

Stomachache

Cramping pain is a sign that the stomach and
intestines are sore and irritated. This is normally
due to poor digestion, excessive nervous tension,
food poisoning, or infection. Stomachache may
occur on its own or lead to vomiting and
diarrhea (in which case, use the remedies on
p. 306). Garlic and calendula are antiviral and will
help clear digestive infections. Relaxing herbs,
such as German chamomile and cramp bark,
relieve stomach spasm. For maximum benefit,
they are mixed with carminative herbs to help
relieve gas.

Q General cautions Seek professional advice if
stomach pain is severe or recurrent. All species of mint
(Mentha spp.) are unsuitable for children under 5.

Stomach Spasm

Relaxing herbs German chamomile
(Chamomilla recutita, p. 77), lemon balm (Me//sso
offcinalis, p. I 13), cramp bark (Viburnum opulus,
p. 150)

Carminative herbs Anise (Pimpinella anisum,
p. 248), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212), mint
(Mentha spp., pp. 234-235), angelica (Angelica
archangelica, p. 168)

Remedy Mix 3 parts of a relaxing herb to I part
of a carminative herb and make an infusion. (For
the carminative herbs, use fennel seeds, aniseed,
mint leaves, or angelica root.) Drink up to 3 cups
(750 ml) a day.

Digestive Infections
Herb Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Eat 1-2 fresh cloves a day.

Herb Calendula (Calendula offcinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Infuse 2 tsp of herb in 3 cups
(750 ml) of water and drink up to 3 cups a day.

Herbs Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56),
peppermint (Mentha x piperita, p. I 14),
catnip (Nepeta cataria, p. 239)

Remedy Mix equal parts of each herb. Make
an infusion of 2 tsp of mixture to 3 A cup (150
ml) of water. Drink I % cups (300 ml) a day.
Caution Do not take yarrow in pregnancy.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

305

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Nausea & Vomiting, Includ

Nausea and vomiting can occur for various
reasons, including food poisoning, infections,
fever, migraine, stress, or emotional problems, as
well as travel sickness. For short-term conditions,
there are many herbs that reduce or relieve the
unpleasant, empty, gnawing symptoms of nausea
and vomiting. Most of the herbs listed are also
very useful for travel sickness.

Ginger, in particular, and other close relatives
such as galangal and turmeric, are widely used
for nausea and vomiting. They help to “warm”
and settle the digestion.

Chiretta strengthens weak digestion and
relieves nausea.

Lemon is an excellent cleansing remedy for
weak and sluggish digestion.

If you are pregnant, or suspect you may be
pregnant, see Morning Sickness, p. 3 17, before
taking any of these remedies.

© General caution Seek professional advice if nausea
is severe or is recurrent. All types or species of mint
(Mentha spp.) are unsuitable for children under 5.

ing Motion Sickness

Nausea & Motion Sickness

Herbs Ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155), galangal
(Alpinia officinarum, p. 61), turmeric (Curcuma longa,
p. 90)

Remedy Make an infusion with one of the herbs
listed using about 1-2 slices (0.5 g) of fresh root
or 14-IT tsp of dried, powdered, or grated root to
3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water. Use the fresh root if
possible. Infuse for at least 5 minutes and sip while
hot. Drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day. Add 1-2
cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97) if desired.
Option Use the remedy under Nausea with
Headache.

Tip For travel sickness, take the infusion in a flask or
chew crystallized ginger.

Weak Digestion

Herbs Chiretta (Swertia chirata, p. 273), centaury
(Erythraea centaurium, p. 206)

Remedy Take 2-4 drops of one of the tinctures on
the tongue each hour.

Herb Lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82)

Remedy Drink the freshly squeezed juice of a
lemon, neat or diluted, each morning.

Nausea due to Emotional Problems

Herb Lemon balm (Me//sso officinalis, p. 113)
Remedy Make an infusion with the dried herb or
use 2 tsp of fresh herb per 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of
water. Drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Vomiting with Dizziness & Vertigo

Herb Black horehound (Ballota nigra, p. 176)
Remedy Make an infusion and drink up to 3
cups (750 ml) a day.

O Caution Seek professional advice if symptoms do
not immediately improve.

Nausea with Headache

Herbs Peppermint (Mentha x piperita, p. 1 14),
pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium, p. 235), bo he
(Mentha haplocalyx, p. 234)

Remedy Make an infusion with 1 level tsp of
one herb per 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water. Drink up
to 24-3 cups (600-750 ml) a day.

Other uses This remedy combats abdominal fullness
and helps improve the appetite and digestion.

Caution Do not give these herbs to children under 5.

Do not take pennyroyal during pregnancy.

Loss of Appetite & Vomiting

Herb Codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula, p. 83)
Remedy Make a decoction and sip 2 Zi tbsp
(50 ml) every 2-3 hours until the vomiting stops
or the dose has been taken over 2 days.

Other uses For anorexia, add 5 g of licorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101).

Caution Do not take licorice during pregnancy.

Gas & Bloating

Gas and bloating are common digestive
problems. As a preventative, take bitter herbs,
such as centaury and gentian, which improve
digestion. Infusions of aromatic plants such as
fennel, cardamom, anise, lemon verbena, or
peppermint are effective remedies. All the herbs
listed under General Remedies can be combined
by adjusting the measurements of each herb
using the same proportion to water.

General cautions Bitters are generally unsuitable and
unpalatable for children under 5. All types or species of
mint (Mentha spp.) are unsuitable for children under 5.

Protection & Prevention

Herbs Centaury (Erythraea centaurium, p. 206),
gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99)

Remedy Take 5-10 drops of tincture 3 times a
day with water.

General Remedies

Herbs Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212), anise
(Pimpinella anisum, p. 248)

Remedy Make an infusion with I4-Fitsp of fennel
or anise seeds per 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water and
drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herb Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum, p. 93)
Remedy Make an infusion with the crushed
seeds of 2 cardamoms per 3 4 cup (150 ml) of
water. Drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herb Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora, p. 228)
Remedy Make an infusion using 1 tsp of dried
or 2 tsp of fresh leaves per 1 cup (150 ml) of
water and take up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herb Peppermint (Mentha x piperita, p. 114)
Remedy Make an infusion and drink up to 3
cups (750 ml) a day. (See General cautions .)

□ Mouth Ulcers & Gum Problems

Many astringent herbs can be used to treat
mouth ulcers and tighten up weak gums and
loose teeth. Sage is particularly effective as it also
disinfects the mouth. Myrrh tincture will sting
but it will also increase the rate of healing.

General Remedies
Herb Myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85)
Remedy Dab neat tincture onto mouth ulcers
and infected gums once every hour.

Herb Sage ( Salvia officinalis, p. 131)

Remedy Use an infusion as a mouthwash, or
rub gums with leaves or powder.

Mouth & Tongue Ulcers

Herbs Myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85),
echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92), licorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101)

Remedy Mix equal parts of the tinctures and
apply neat or diluted (I part tincture to 5 parts
water) every hour.

306

Constipation & Diarrhea

Herbs help both constipation and diarrhea
by gently restoring normal bowel function.
Constipation often results from insufficient
intake of fruit, vegetables, and whole grains,
while diarrhea is usually caused by intestinal
infection or inflammation, such as food
poisoning. Irritable bowel syndrome gives rise to
alternating bouts of constipation and diarrhea,
and spastic constipation results from tension
and muscle spasm in the colon.

Herbs

Dandelion root, licorice, and yellow
dock are mild laxatives.

Senna is a strong laxative and should only be
taken when other herbs have failed.

Psyllium seeds and husks cleanse the colon and
encourage normal bowel habits.

Cramp bark has antispasmodic properties and
can help spastic constipation.

Agrimony, bael, bistort, and black
catechu are astringent herbs that dry and
tighten the bowel lining. Only take in the short
term, as they impair absorption of food. They
are taken mixed with soothing, demulcent herbs,
such as psyllium or marshmallow, for diarrhea.

Diet for Constipation

Fruit acts as a gentle laxative within the large
intestine. Eat plenty of fresh fruit each day, such
as figs (Ficus carica, p. 21 I), apples, or tamarind
(Tamarindus indico, p. 274), which also counter
vomiting, gas, and indigestion.

© General caution Seek professional advice for
persistent constipation or diarrhea.

Constipation

Herbs Yellow dock (Rumex crispus, p. 264),
Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmotum, p. 126)
Remedy Make a decoction using I tsp of either
herb to 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water. Take last thing
at night.

Note Yellow dock is one of the mildest laxatives and
should be tried first. If this has no effect, take a single
dose of Chinese rhubarb each day. This has
a stronger action than yellow dock.

Cautions Do not take Chinese rhubarb or yellow dock
during pregnancy.

Persistent Constipation

Herbs Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141),
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101), yellow dock
(Rumex crispus, p. 264)

Remedy I Make a decoction using 20 g of
dandelion root to 3 cups (750 ml) of water and
drink each day, or use the ground root to make an
infusion and drink I %-2'A cups (450-600 ml) a day.
Remedy 2 Mix 3 tsp of dandelion root and
yellow dock and I tsp of licorice. Use the mixture
to make a decoction with 3 cups (750 ml) of
water and drink 3 /4-1 !4 cups (150-300 ml) a day.

Cautions Do not take yellow dock or licorice
during pregnancy.

Herbs Senna (Cassia senna, p. 75), ginger (Zingiber
officinale, p. 155)

Remedy Steep 3-6 senna pods and 2-3 slices
(I g) of fresh ginger in 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of warm
water. Alternatively, take senna tablets. Take either
preparation for up to 10 days.

Note This is the strongest laxative listed.

O Cautions Take for up to 10 days at a time. During
pregnancy, take on advice of a health care practitioner.

Do not give to children under 5.

Spastic Constipation
Herb Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150)
Remedy Make a decoction using 15 g of the
root to 3 cups (750 ml) of water and take 3 A-I %
cups (150-300 ml) a day or take 2 tsp of tincture
with water once per day.

Diarrhea

Herbs Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria, p. 162),
sage (Salvia officinalis, p. 131), bael (Aegle
marmelos, p. 161), bistort (Polygonum bistorta,
p. 253), black catechu (Acacia catechu, p. 158)
Remedy The above herbs are listed in ascending
order of astringency. Make a decoction using I
heaping tsp of one herb to I cup (225 ml) of
water and simmer for 15-20 minutes. Take up to
I % cups (450 ml) a day for no longer than 3 days.

Note If using bistort or black catechu (the most
astringent herbs), mix with demulcents such as
psyllium seeds (Plantago spp., p. 123) or marshmallow
root (Althaea officinalis, p. 165). Add I tsp, plus a pinch
of peppermint (Mentha x piperita, p. 114) or other
mint (Mentha spp., pp. 234-235), per I cup
(225 ml) of decoction.

©Cautions Do not take for more than 3 days at
a time and do not take again for 3 days. If there is
no improvement, seek professional advice. Do not
take sage in pregnancy. Do not give mint to children
under 5.

Chronic Diarrhea &

Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Herb Psyllium (Plantago spp., p. 123)

Remedy Take I heaping tsp of seeds and husks
with at least 3 A cup (150 ml) of water, 2-3 times
daily, or mix with food and then drink at least 3 A
cup (150 ml) of water. Seeds may be soaked in
cool water overnight before taking.

Acidity & Indigestion

Indigestion, caused by too much acid production,
suggests a poor or inappropriate diet. To coat
the inner lining of the stomach and intestines
and protect them from excess acidity, take
slippery elm, arrowroot, or Iceland moss, which
are sticky, mucilaginous herbs when soaked in
water. Meadowsweet strengthens the lining of
the stomach and reduces acidic symptoms, while
German chamomile is amazingly versatile for a
number of gastrointestinal problems.

Diet

Cut out acidic foods, such as oranges, red meat,
spinach, and tomatoes, as well as alcohol and
tobacco if possible.

General Remedies
Herbs Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145),
arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea, p. 233), Iceland
moss (Cetraria islandica, p. 186)

Remedy I Make an infusion with 2 heaping tsp
of one of the herbs to Vi cup (100 ml) of water.
Leave for 15 minutes. Take Vi cup (100 ml) up to
4 times a day.

Remedy 2 Make slippery elm “food” by mixing
I heaping tsp of powder and 3 tsp of cold water.
Stir in I cup (250 ml) of boiling water. Add a
pinch of cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp., p. 8 I) or
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans, p. I I) to taste. Take I
cup (250 ml) 3 times a day.

Herbs Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212),
galbanum (Ferula gummosa, p. 21 I), anise
(Pimpinella anisum, p. 248), or any one of the
Nausea & Vomiting herbs listed on p. 306.

Remedy Make an infusion using I heaping tsp
of fennel or anise seeds, or galbanum herb,
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Drink during
the day.

Indigestion, Abdominal Pain,
Bloating, & Hiccups
Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,
P- 77)

Remedy Make an infusion in a covered
container. Drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Acidity with Gastritis
Herb Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria, p. 98)
Remedy Make an infusion with the flowering
tops. Drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Nerve & Stress-Related Problems

Most of us have little opportunity to escape from daily
pressures, and consequently the nervous system is unable to
recover its natural vitality. Long-term stress can lead to anxiety,
nervousness, depression, insomnia, palpitations, and irritability.
Herbal medicines can be wonderfully effective for nourishing
the nervous system, calming and relaxing the mind, and gently
stimulating or sedating the body. Headaches and migraine
respond well to treatment with herbs, as can conditions directly affecting the
nerves, such as neuralgia.

Valerian

(Valeriana officinalis)

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Severe nerve, chest, or head pain

■ Headache or pain that does not improve
within 48 hours despite self-medication

■ Loss of sensation or loss of movement

■ Double vision

■ Severe depression

Anxiety, Depression, & Tension

Many people have experienced lack of well-being
and feelings of powerlessness that develop as
stress, anxiety, and tension take hold. There
is no instant answer^ but a remarkable number
of herbs can reduce these symptoms, and, by
supporting the nervous system, gradually
restore health.

Lemon balm, skullcap, and damiana are

all calming herbs that ease physical tension and
help maintain a balanced mental and emotional
state. Lemon balm alleviates stress-related
digestive problems, skullcap combats panic
attacks, and damiana acts as a gentle “pick-me-up.”
Valerian has tranquilizing qualities.

Ginseng and Siberian ginseng are
excellent for coping with stressful events
such as competitive sports, examinations, or
moving a household.

Ashwagandha is a supportive tonic herb,
strengthening and encouraging recovery
from long-term stress or chronic illness.

Lifestyle

When emotionally stressed, it is important
to eat well, exercise regularly, and allow time
for relaxation. Yoga and Tai Chi can be
particularly helpful.

General Remedies

Herbs Lemon balm (Me//sso officinalis, p. I 13),
damiana ( Turnera diffusa, p. 144), skullcap
(.Scutellaria lateriflora, p. 135)

Remedy Make an infusion using one of the herbs.
Drink up to 2'A cups (600 ml) a day.

Herb St. John’s wort ( Hypericum perforatum,

p. 106)

Remedy Take tablets or make an infusion and
drink up to 2'A cups (600 ml) a day.

Note This remedy may take 2-3 weeks before there is a
noticeable effect.

Digestive Problems due to Stress
Herb Lemon balm (Me//sso officinalis, p. 113)
Remedy Make an infusion with a handful of fresh
leaves and 3 /4 cup (150 ml) water, or make an
infusion with the dried herb. Drink up to 3 cups
(750 ml) a day, or add the daily dose to a bath.
NOTE This remedy also calms palpitations and
encourages sleep.

Panic Attacks & Headaches
Herb Skullcap ( Scutellaria lateriflora, p. 135)
Remedy Make an infusion and drink up to 3 cups
(750 ml) a day.

Chronic Anxiety & Hyperactivity
Herb Valerian ( Valeriana officinalis, p. 148)
Remedy Take 10 drops of tincture in water
every hour for up to 2 weeks at a time.

Nervous Exhaustion,

Muscle Tension, & Headaches
Herb Codonopsis ( Codonopsis pilosula, p. 83)
Remedy Make a decoction and drink in equal
doses during the day, or cook up to 25 g of
the root a day in a soup or stew.

Short-term Stress

Herbs Ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. I 18), Siberian
ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus, p. 94).
Remedy Either take ginseng tablets, chew 0.5-1
g of root a day, or use it in cooking. Alternatively
take 1-2 g of Siberian ginseng capsules up to
twice day.

Cautions Do not take for more than 6 weeks at a
time. Do not give to children under 12. Do not take
during pregnancy. Avoid drinks that contain caffeine.

Long-term Stress & Convalescence
Herb Ashwagandha ( Withania somnifera, p. 152)
Remedy Make a decoction using 3 g of root to
34 cup (150 ml) of water and take during the
day, or chew the same amount of root.

Neuralgia (Nerve Pain)

Neuralgia is the pain caused by an irritated,
damaged, or trapped nerve. It usually occurs
in brief, severe bouts and can be felt shooting
along the nerve. Although it is difficult to treat,
the following remedies may bring relief to minor
problems. St. John’s wort is analgesic and
antiviral, helping to relieve sciatica (pain caused
by a trapped spinal nerve) and head pain. Cloves
have an anesthetic effect, and peppermint
eases pain. Try also the St. John’s wort oil rub
(see Back Pain, p. 3 13).

O General caution Seek professional advice if there is
fever, or swelling of the gums with toothache.

General Remedies
Herbs St. John’s wort ( Hypericum perforatum,
p. 106), lavender ( Lavandula officinalis, p. 108),
clove ( Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97)

Remedy Apply neat St. John’s wort infused oil
to painful areas, or add 20 drops each of clove
and lavender essential oil to 2 tbsp plus 2 tsp
(50 ml) of St. John’s wort infused oil and then
apply every 2-3 hours as required.

Herb Peppermint ( Mentha x piperita, p. 114)
Remedy Make an infusion with 25 g of herb to 3
cups (750 ml) of water and bathe the affected area.
Alternatively, dilute 20 drops of essential oil in

2 tbsp plus 2 tsp (50 ml) of carrier oil and gently
massage into the painful area.

Caution Do not use on children under 5.

Head Pain

Herb Clove ( Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97)
Remedy Mix A tsp of powder with water to
make a thick paste and apply to the head.

Toothache

Herb Clove ( Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97)
Remedy Chew a clove or rub 1-2 drops of
neat essential oil onto the affected tooth 2-3
times a day for up to 3 days.

308

Headaches & Migraine

Headaches and migraine can be very debilitating,
especially when they occur frequently
Headaches are caused by many factors, such
as toothache, neck tension, eyestrain, and
hangovers. It is important to diagnose and treat
the underlying cause, which could mean visiting
a dentist, optician, or osteopath in the first
instance. Herbal medicine can be very helpful
for headaches, although choosing the right herbs
can be difficult. The following remedies contain
relaxing herbs that alleviate headaches triggered
by stress as well as other more specific factors.
Lavender is soothing, while vervain is atonic
and relaxing herb for nervous exhaustion.
Peppermint is effective for headaches that are
linked to indigestion.

Migraine is a more specific problem. The
remedies aim both to prevent the onset of a
migraine as well as treat the symptoms.
Hangovers are not a nerve problem in a direct
sense, but they should be treated in the same
way as any other type of mild poisoning that
requires detoxification and headache relief.
Make sure you also drink plenty of water.

©General caution For migraine or recurrent
headaches, consult a professional practitionerto
diagnose and treat the underlying cause.

General Remedy

Herb Lavender (Lavandula officinalis, p. 108)
Remedy Rub a few drops of neat essential oil on
the temples.

Tension & Sinus Headaches
Herb Linden (Tilia spp., p. 277)

Remedy Make an infusion using I heaping tsp of
linden to 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of watep or use teabags.
Drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Nervous Exhaustion & Overactivity
Herbs Vervain (Verbena officinalis, p. 149), valerian
(Valeriana officinalis, p. 148)

Remedy Make an infusion of vervain and drink up
to 2% cups a day. Alternatively, mix Li tsp of each
tincture and take with water up to 3 times a day.
Caution Do not take vervain during pregnancy.

Digestive Headaches & Biliousness
Herbs Peppermint (Mentha x piperita, p. I 14),
pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium, p. 235)

Remedy Make an infusion of either herb in a
covered container, using a teabag, a small handful
of fresh leaves, or I level tsp of dried herb per
34 cup (150 ml) of water. Drink up to 3 cups
(750 ml) a day for up to I week, or up to 2'A
cups (600 ml) a day if taking for 2-3 weeks.

Cautions Do not give to children under 5. Do not take
pennyroyal during pregnancy.

Migraine Prevention

Herb Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium,

p. 140)

Remedy At the first sign of an impending
attack, take tablets or 10 drops of tincture with
water. Alternatively, place a fresh leaf between
slices of bread and eat as a sandwich.

Cautions Do not give to children under 12. Do not
take in pregnancy.

Migraine

Herb Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora, p. 135)
Remedy Make an infusion using I heaping tsp
of herb to 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water. Drink up to
3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herb Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, p. 128)
Remedy Make an infusion using I level tsp of
herb per 3 A cup (150 ml) of water and take up
to 2H cups (600 ml) each day.

Detoxification for Hangover
Herb Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141)
Remedy Make a decoction using 15 g of
root to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Take the
decoction in small quantities at frequent
intervals throughout the day.

1 > Insomnia

Difficulty in sleeping affects everyone at one time
or another. Herbs can provide a safe and gentle
solution to this problem.

Sedative herbs such as German chamomile,
linden, lavender, hops, and passionflower are
relaxing and, unlike some herbs, are most likely
to be effective against insomnia when taken at
night. Hops are excellent when the mind refuses
to “switch off.”

Stimulant herbs are effective when the
body suffers from nervous exhaustion and
feels, paradoxically, too tired for sleep. Oats
and ginseng encourage a good night’s sleep,
especially for people suffering from nervous
tension and fatigue.

Herbal sleeping pills, containing
combinations of valerian, hops, passionflower,
and similar herbs, are often helpful in
overcoming mild sleep problems and in
reducing feelings of anxiety and stress.

General Remedies

Herbs German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,
p. 77), linden (Tilia spp., p. 277), lavender
(Lavandula officinalis, p. 108), passionflower
(Passiflora incarnata, p. 119)

Remedy The above herbs are listed in
ascending order of strength. Start with the
weakest, German chamomile, and if it does not
help, try the next strongest. Make an infusion in
a covered container using 1-2 heaping tsp per 3 /L
cup (150 ml) of water. Take priorto sleeping.
Alternatively, take I tsp of tincture with water
up to 3 times a night.

Herbs Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, p. 148), hops
(Humulus lupulus, p. 104), passionflower (Passiflora
incarnata, p. 119)

Remedy I Take tablets containing one or more
of the herbs.

Remedy 2 Make a sachet with dried hops
(see p. 104) and place inside your pillow.

Caution Do not take hops internally if feeling low
or depressed.

Overactive Mind

Herb Hops (Humulus lupulus, p. 104)

Remedy Take the tincture with water at night.
Start with 10 drops up to a maximum of 40
drops each night.

Caution Do not take hops internally if feeling low
or depressed.

Poor sleep & nervous exhaustion
Herb Oats (Avena sativa, p. 175)

Remedy Eat oats daily, for example as a hot
cereal, and take I tsp of oat straw tincture with
water 3 times a day.

Herbs Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera,
p. 152), Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus
senticosus, p. 94)

Remedy Take I -2 g of ashwagandha or
Siberian ginseng up to 3 times a day. Either
chew the root, or cook it in a soup. Alternatively,
take tablets.

Cautions Avoid taking caffeine while taking
ashwagandha and Siberian ginseng. Do not take
Siberian ginseng for more than 6 weeks at a time.

Do not take during pregnancy. Do not give to children
under 12.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Respiratory Tract Problems

The respiratory system stretches from the lining of the eyes
and sinuses to the base of the lungs, and is constantly exposed
to dust, dirt, and organisms in the air It is no surprise that in our
ever more polluted world we often face problems such as
sinus congestion and asthma. Herbal remedies aim to protect
the linings of the eyes, ears, sinuses, nose, and throat, as well
(Thymus vuigans) as the respiratory "tree” of the lungs by countering infection,
clearing congestion, soothing the mucous membranes, and relieving
inflammation or allergy.

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Difficulty in breathing or chest pain

■ Cough that lasts for more than 2 weeks

■ Severe pain in the respiratory tract

■ Coughing up blood

■ Fever of I02°F (39°C) or more

■ Heavy nosebleed lasting longer than
I hour

Coughs & Bronchitis

The act of coughing is usually a reaction to irritant
particles in the bronchial tubes. It is worthwhile
to consider the type of cough you have and
where it is centered. Herbal remedies can then
be chosen to work effectively to clear or ease
the cough.

Productive, chest coughs may produce
white, yellow, or green phlegm.

Unproductive coughs are dry and irritant
and often take a longtime to clear.

Bronchitis occurs when the lining of the lungs’
airways becomes inflamed, resulting in a chest
cough, possible breathlessness, and a raised
temperature. Use both an external and an
internal remedy.

Herbs Thyme is an effective antiseptic for
the whole system. Licorice acts as a soothing
expectorant for persistent coughs and makes
any remedy more palatable. Take plenty of garlic
to fight bronchitis.

O General caution Seek professional advice if a cough
lasts for more than I week without a cold or infection.

General Remedies

Herb Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Take 3 cups (750 ml) of infusion a day.

Dry Coughs in the Throat & Chest

Herbs Balm of Gilead (Populus x candicons,
p. 254), thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), licorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101)

Remedy Make an infusion using equal parts of
thyme, balm of Gilead buds, and licorice powder.
Take !4 cup (75 ml) 6 times a day, or mix equal
parts of each tincture and take I tsp up to 5 times
a day with water. Reduce the dosage as the cough
eases.

O Cautions Seek professional advice if no improvement
occurs after I week. Do not take licorice if pregnant.

Chest Coughs & Bronchitis

Herbs Elecampane (Inula helenium, p. 107),
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, p. 96), licorice
(Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101)

Remedy (Internal) Make a decoction of
elecampane and take I !4-1 % cups (300-450 ml) a
day. Add 5 g licorice powder to improve flavor

Note For acute bronchitis and coughs, add
5 g of eucalyptus leaf to the decoction.

Caution Do not take elecampane during pregnancy.

Herbs Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92), garlic
(Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy (Internal) Take 14 tsp of echinacea
tincture with water 2-3 times a day, or take
tablets. In addition, eat 2 garlic cloves daily.

Herbs Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), cajuput
(Melaleuca leucadendron, p. 234), eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus globulus, p. 96)

Remedy (External) Mix 5 drops each of
eucalyptus and thyme essential oils with 2 tsp
of olive or sunflower oil. Massage over the chest
and back, up to twice a day. Alternatively, burn
5-10 drops of one of the oils in a burner for
30 minutes.

Caution Do not apply thyme oil during pregnancy.

E Nosebleeds

Many herbs are reputed to stop nosebleeds,
and most are effective. Using an herb as snuff is
a traditional way of staunching a nosebleed.

O Caution If the nosebleed continues for some hours
or is very heavy, seek immediate professional advice.

Prevention of Nosebleeds

Herbs Eyebright (Euphrasia spp., p. 209), nettle
(Urtica dioica, p. 146)

Remedy Make an infusion using 25 g of either
herb to 3 cups of water Take up to 2/2 cups a day.

Nosebleeds

Herbs Wild geranium (Geranium maculatum,

p.216)

Remedy First, pinch the nostrils and tilt back the
head. Then sniff 4 tsp of the powdered herb.

0 Eye Problems

Rather than treating the eyes themselves, these
remedies benefit the mucous tissue lining the
eyes, which is contiguous with the nose and
throat. Problems affecting the linings of the eyes
often respond well to local treatment with herbal
remedies, but care must be taken not to irritate
the eyes with particles of herbs left in the lotion.

Sore & Tired Eyes

Herbs German chamomile (Ghamomilla recutita,
p. 77), ju hua (Ghrysanthemum x morifolium, p. 78)
Remedy Make a compress by infusing a German
chamomile teabag, or make a poultice with 15 g
of either herb to I cup (250 ml) of water. Cool,
squeeze out the excess, and place the teabag or
poultice over the eye.

Conjunctivitis

Herbs Eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis, p. 209),
cornflower (Gentaurea cyanus, p. 185)

Remedy Make an infusion with either herb and
strain. When warm (not hot), put in an eyebath
and bathe eyes well. Use no more than twice a day.

O Caution Seek professional advice if there is no
improvement in 3^4 days.

310

Colds, Flu, & Fevers

The common cold, with which most of us are
only too familiar, is a viral infection normally
affecting the nose and throat. Flu is considerably
more debilitating and may include fever, headache,
muscular pain, nausea, and vomiting. Both have a
habit of striking when we are stressed or run
down. Herbal home treatment is especially suitable
for these familiar “self-limiting” ailments since it
enables us to make life more comfortable, control
fever, and improve the body’s recovery rate.
Garlic, ginger, and lemon combine to
create the classic flu remedy that can also be
used to relieve colds, sore throats, and tonsillitis.
Ginger, cinnamon, cloves, and cayenne
have heating properties and stimulate sweating.
This helps to lower the body’s temperature
during fever.

Elderberry and yarrow are antiviral, stimulate
sweating, and astringe the mucous membranes
of the nose and throat, reducing the production
of mucus.

Boneset and cayenne are particularly helpful
for respiratory infections.

Wormwood and gentian are bitter herbs
that cool the body and combat high fever.

Diet

For all these problems, eat lightly. Fruit and
vegetables are best, the latter perhaps in a
soup. Avoid greasy, fatty, sugar-rich food and
dairy products.

Self-help

Reduce fever and temperature by washing with
cool or cold water and drinking plenty of liquid,
especially when sweating.

Q General cautions Remember that in the very
young and very old, even a common cold can develop
into pneumonia. Always seek professional advice if
symptoms persist or suddenly get worse.

General Remedies

Herbs Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59), ginger (Zingi¬
ber officinale, p. 155), lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82)
Remedy Crush a medium-sized garlic clove, grate
a similarly sized piece of fresh ginger, and squeeze
the juice from I lemon. Mix together with I tsp of
honey. Add 3 A cup (150 ml) of warm water and stir.
Drink up to \ 2 A cups (450 ml) a day while
symptoms last.

Herbs Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), boneset
(Eupatorium perfoliatum, p. 208)

Remedy Make an infusion using Hi tsp of each
herb with 3 A cup (150 ml) of water and then drink
1 2 / 3 -2!/ 3 cups (450-600 ml) a day.

Note This remedy is very effective if thick green mucus
and nasal congestion occur.

Colds

Herbs Lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82), cinnamon
(Cinnamomum spp., p. 8 I)

Remedy Drink the freshly squeezed juice of
I lemon, neat or diluted in warm water.

Option Add I tsp of honey to the juice and IT tsp
of cinnamon powder.

Herb Ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155)

Remedy Infuse 2-3 slices (I g) of fresh ginger
with 3 A cup (150 ml) of water for 5 minutes. Take
up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herbs Elderberry (Sambucus nigra, p. 132), lemon
(Citrus limon, p. 82)

Remedy Take I tsp (5 ml) of elderberry tincture
or extract in warm water up to 3 times a day. Add
in freshly squeezed juice from half a lemon.

High Fever

Herbs Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56), boneset
(Eupatorium perfoliatum, p. 208), cayenne
(Capsicum frutescens, p. 74)

Remedy Make an infusion using I tsp each of
yarrow and boneset, with a pinch of cayenne, to
3 A cup (150 ml) of water. Brew for 5 minutes and
drink hot. Take up to 2!T cups (600 ml) a day.

Options Add I or 2 of the following herbs:

2-3 cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97), !T tsp
of powdered or grated fresh ginger (Zingiber
officinale, p. 155), IT tsp of chopped or
powdered cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum spp.,
p. 81), 1-2 crushed cardamom seeds (Elettaria
cardamomum, p. 93), 2-3 crushed peppercorns
(Piper nigrum, p. 250).

Caution Do not take yarrow during pregnancy.

Herbs Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium,
p. 66), gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99)

Remedy Take 10 drops of either tincture with
water 3 times a day in addition to the above remedy.
Caution Do not take wormwood during pregnancy.

Mild Fever

Herbs Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56),
elderberry (Sambucus nigra, p. 132)

Remedy Make an infusion with IT tsp of each
herb in IT cup (100 ml) water. Brew for 10
minutes and drink up to 2IT cups (600 ml) a day.
Caution Do not take yarrow during pregnancy.

Herb Onion (Allium cepa, p. 164)

Remedy Bake a large onion at 400°F (200°C)
for 40 minutes. Remove, and mix the juice with
an equal amount of honey. Take 1-2 tsp an hour
up to 8 times a day.

Flu with Muscle Aches & Pains

Herbs Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), lemon
balm (Melissa officinalis, p. I 13), elderflower
(Sambucus nigra, p. 132)

Remedy Make an infusion using 5 g of each
herb to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Brew for 10
minutes and drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herb Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92)

Remedy Take tablets or capsules, or up to IT tsp
of tincture with water twice a day. Alternatively,
make a decoction with 5 g of root to 3 cups
(750 ml) of water and then drink I !T-2!T cups
(300-600 ml) a day.

Sore Throats & Tonsillitis

The garlic, ginger, and lemon mixture listed
under General Remedies for Colds, Flu, & Fevers
(see above) can alleviate the symptoms of both
sore throats and tonsillitis. The brave can slowly
chew a clove of garlic; sage and echinacea are
also strongly antiseptic. All these herbs will
relieve symptoms and aid a speedy recovery.

Q General caution Always seek professional
advice and treatment for children under 5 suffering
from tonsillitis.

Sore Throats

Herbs Tamarind (Tamarindus indica, p. 274),
lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82)

Remedy Gargle with either a decoction of
tamarind fruit or I tbsp (20 ml) of lemon juice,
either neat or diluted in warm water.

Herbs Rosemary (Rosmarinus ofpcinalis, p. 128),
sage (Salvia ofpcinalis, p. 131), myrrh (Commiphora
molmol, p. 85), echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92)
Remedy I Dilute I tsp of equal parts of all
tinctures in 5 tsp of warm water and gargle.
Swallow the mixture (except if pregnant).
Remedy 2 Make a sage infusion, brew for

10 minutes, and allow to cool a little. Gargle,
then swallow. Add I tsp (5 ml) of vinegar
and I tsp of honey to strengthen its action.
Caution Do not swallow sage during pregnancy.

Tonsillitis

Herbs Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92), all
herbs listed under Sore Throats
Remedy Take echinacea (see Flu with Muscle
Aches & Pains above), oruseoneofthe
gargles listed under Sore Throats.

O Caution Seek professional advice if there is no
improvement after 2 days.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

31

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Congestion, Sinus Problems, & Earache

Excessive nasal congestion is not always easy to
treat and suggests poor air quality inappropriate
diet, or an allergy. The shape of the nose and
sinuses (the air-filled cavities in the bones around
the nose) can also play a role in this condition.
Sinuses can become blocked with fluid, causing
painful pressure. Earache may be caused by local
infection—in which case garlic is particularly
effective—or congestion. Lavender is helpful in
soothing the pain of all types of earache.

Diet

As a first step, reduce foods thought to
increase mucus production, such as dairy,
eggs, fried and fatty food, sugar, and refined
carbohydrates, such as white flour, as well
as alcohol.

© General caution Seek professional advice for
earache, especially in children.

General Remedy

Herb Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, p. 96)
Remedy Make a steam inhalation by infusing
15 g of herb, or put 5-10 drops of essential oil in
3 cups (750 ml) water. Inhale for 10 minutes.

Allergic States with Excessive Nasal

Mucus, such as Hay Fever

Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,

P- 77)

Remedy Make a steam inhalation by infusing
15 g of herb, or put 5-10 drops of essential oil in
3 cups (750 ml) water. Inhale for 10 minutes.

Earache

Herb Lavender (Lavandula officinalis, p. 108)
Remedy Place 2 drops of essential oil on a cotton
ball and plug into the ear.

Earache Caused by Infection
Herb Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Break open a garlic oil capsule, place
2 drops on a cotton ball, and plug into the
affected ear. Alternatively, crush a large clove of
garlic and soak in I tbsp of sunflower or olive oil
for at least 24 hours. Strain the oil and warm it
to body temperature. Then place 2 drops on a
cotton ball and plug into the ear.

Earache due to Chronic Congestion

Herbs Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92), thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), marshmallow (Althaea
officinalis, p. 165), elderflower (Sambucus nigra,
p. 132)

Remedy Mix equal parts of each tincture and
take I tsp 3 times a day with water.

Copious Liquid Mucus &

Sinus Congestion

See Allergic Rhinitis, p. 300.

Sinus Headaches

See Tension & Sinus Headaches, p. 309.

Musculoskeletal Problems

Whether caused by accident, sports injury, or simple wear
and tear, musculoskeletal problems can lead to a significant
deterioration in quality of life, Manipulation is often the primary
treatment, but herbal remedies can reduce pain and inflammation,
relax muscles, detoxify the body, and speed up the rate of healing,
External treatments soothe back muscles and joints, and sprained
or sore limbs. Persevering with the simple home treatments given below can bring
about a marked improvement of many problems.

Cramp bark

(Viburnum opulus)

C Seek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Severe pain

■ Significant or sudden joint swelling

■ Broken or suspected broken bones

■ Any injury that may need an X-ray

©Caution Only give external remedies to
children. Seek professional advice before giving
internal remedies to them.

Sprains & Fractures

Minor damaged areas benefit from herbs such as
arnica and comfrey, which soothe bruising and
speed up the healing process. Apply as soon as
possible after treatment.

© General caution Always seek professional
treatment for broken bones, fractures, and
severe sprains.

Sprains

Herb Arnica (Arnica montana, p. 172)

Remedy Apply ointment or cream to the
damaged area and gently massage into the skin at
least 3 times a day.

Caution Do not use arnica on broken skin.

Fractures

Herb Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138)
Remedy Gently apply ointment, cream, or
infused oil to the area at least 3 times a day.
Caution Do not use comfrey on broken skin.

□ Muscle Aches & Cramps

Muscle aches and cramps are entirely normal,
particularly after strenuous activity, and the pain
should lessen in time. Meanwhile, rubs and
ointments containing soothing herbs, such
as arnica, thyme, and cramp bark, can alleviate
aching muscles. Rheumatism is a general term for
muscle or joint pain and stiffness, and the remedies
listed here and under Joint Pain & Stiffness, p. 3 13,
are appropriate for this condition.

Tired & Aching Muscles
Herb Arnica (Arnica montana, p. 172)

Remedy Apply cream or ointment.

Caution Do not use arnica on broken skin.

Herbs Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis, p. 128)

Remedy Make an infusion with 25 g of one herb
to 3 cups (750 ml) water. Brew for 10 minutes,
strain into a bath, and soak for 20 minutes.

Option Try also the rub containing St. John’s
wort oil, listed under General Remedies for Back
Pain, p. 3 13.

Cramps & Muscle Spasms
Herb Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150)
Remedy (Internal) Take I tsp of tincture with
water up to 3 times a day.

Remedy (External) Rub neat tincture firmly
into the affected area.

312

Joint Pain & Stiffness, Including Arthritis & Gout

The most common ailment characterized by joint
pain and stiffness is arthritis, which is caused by
inflammation of the joints. Aging or wear and
tear may be the cause, but some arthritic
conditions, and other joint problems such as
gout, are due to the buildup of waste products
in the joints.

Devil’s claw is anti-inflammatory, relieving
swollen and inflamed joints.

Lemon juice reduces acidity in the body. White
willow relieves inflammation and pain and, when
combined with other herbs, can lead to significant
improvement in mild to moderate arthritis.
Meadowsweet and celery combine well to
reduce acidity. All the herbal remedies here can
be safely taken for 1-2 months.

Self-help

Improving posture, managing anxiety, and using
herbal remedies to help the body eliminate toxins
can all help control these conditions. Avoid acid¬
forming foods such as red meat, spinach, tomatoes,
and oranges. Regular (but not excessive) exercise
is beneficial, as is a relaxed, positive attitude.

O General cautions For severe arthritis, consult a
professional practitioner. Do not take devil’s claw, black
cohosh, or celery seed during pregnancy.

Arthritis & Inflamed Joints

Herb Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens,

p. 103)

Remedy Take tablets (see General cautions ).

Herb Lemon (Citrus limon, p. 82)

Remedy Squeeze the juice from a lemon and
drink neat or diluted in water each morning.

Herb White willow (Salix alba, p. 129)

Remedy Take tablets, or make a decoction using
10 g of root to 3 cups (750 ml) water. Take in

3 doses over 1-2 days as required.

Herbs Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens,
p. 103), celery (Apium graveolens, p. 64), white
willow (Salix alba, p. 129)

Remedy Make a decoction with 8 g of each
herb to 3 cups (750 ml) of water, divide into

4 doses, and take 2-3 doses a day; or mix equal
parts of the tinctures and take I tsp with water
3 times a day (see General cautions ).

Option If arthritis develops during menopause,
replace devil’s claw with 8 g of black cohosh
(Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79)

Herb Deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna, p. 69)
Remedy Apply belladonna bandages in addition
to one of the above remedies.

Arthritis Associated with Acid
Indigestion or Peptic Ulcer

Herbs Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria,
p. 98), celery (Apium graveolens, p. 64)

Remedy Make an infusion with meadowsweet
and drink up to 3 cups (750 ml) a day, or mix
2 parts meadowsweet tincture with I part
celery tincture and take A tsp with water
2-3 times a day (refer to General cautions ).

Stiff & Aching Joints
Herbs St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum,
p. 106), comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138),
lavender (Lavandula officinalis, p. 108)

Remedy Mix 2A tbsp of St. John’s wort or
comfrey infused oil with 20-40 drops of
lavender essential oil and gently massage into
the affected area.

Option Try the rub containing St. John’s wort
infused oil under General Remedies for Back
Pain below.

Gout

Herb Celery (Apium graveolens, p. 64)
Remedy Take tablets, or make a decoction
with the seeds. Divide into 3 doses and drink
during the day or add 25 g of seeds to food per
day (see General cautions ).

Back Pain

Above all, back problems require specialist
attention and plenty of rest. Herbal remedies
contribute to overall improvement by alleviating
pain and muscle tension, and helping to make life
more comfortable.

Cramp bark and prickly ash are warming,
relaxing herbs, which, when rubbed into the
affected area, help to “unknot” taut muscles.
Lavender and St. John’s wort are useful
herbs when nervous tension is contributing
to the problem.

Devil’s claw and cramp bark have effective
anti-inflammatory properties and help reduce
swollen joints.

Passionflower encourages sleep, particularly
when back pain is accompanied by nervous
tension.

Sciatica (a painful condition caused by a
trapped spinal nerve) and neuralgia can both
be relieved by using an external rub containing
St. John’s wort infused oil.

QGeneral cautions Back problems need specialist
care. For chronic or severe back pain, seek the advice
of a professional practitioner to gain the most benefit
from herbal medicine.

General Remedies

Herbs Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150),
prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum, p. 153)
Remedy Make a decoction using 15 g of cramp bark
and 5 g of prickly ash bark to 3 cups (750 ml) of water
Strain and rub into the affected area, or use I tbsp of
tincture and apply in the same way.

Note Use especially for tense neck and
lumbar regions.

Herb Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Make an infusion using 25 g of herb to 3
cups (750 ml) of water and strain into a bath. Soak
for 20 minutes.

Herbs St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum,
p. 106), lavender (Lavandula officinalis, p. 108),
pepper (Piper nigrum, p. 250), crampbark
(Viburnum opulus, p. 150)

Remedy Take 2 tbsp of sunflower oil or St. John’s
wort infused oil, add 20 drops of lavender
essential oil, 10 drops each of rosemary and
pepper essential oil, and I tsp of cramp bark
tincture. Shake and rub into tense areas, either
after a bath or having first warmed the area with
a hot towel.

Other uses Use for sciatica and other back problems
that cause neuralgia, as well as for stiff joints and
chronic muscle ache.

Back Pain due to Joint Inflammation

Herbs White willow (Salix alba, p. 129),
cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150), devil’s claw
(Harpagophytum procumbens, p. 103)

Remedy Mix equal parts of each root and
make a decoction. Divide into 6 doses and take
over 2 days. If there is no improvement after
7 days, divide the decoction into 3 doses and
take daily for up to a week.

Caution Do not take devil’s claw during pregnancy.

Sleeplessness due to Backache
Herbs Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata,
p. I 19), valerian (Valeriana officinalis, p. 148),
cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150)

Remedy Make a decoction using 8 g each of
passionflower, valerian, and cramp bark to 3
cups (750 ml) of water and drink 3 A- \ % cup
(150-300 ml) at night (the decoction is sufficient
for 2 days).

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Urinary & Fungal Infections

Infections signal that the body’s resistance to disease has become
weakened, particularly if they are long-lasting or recurrent. Minor
infections affecting the kidneys and urinary system are common
and, despite being hard to shake off, can be treated by boosting
the body’s natural defenses. Fungal infections can also be difficult to
clear and may require professional treatment, although herbs such
as garlic (Allium sativum , p. 59) and tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia,
p. 112) are strongly antifungal. If the infection is chronic, it is
necessary to support the immune system as a whole, with herbs such as
echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92).

Echinacea

(Echinacea spp.)

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Infections that show no signs of
improvement, or deteriorate after taking
an herbal remedy

■ Temperatures above I02°F (39°C)

■ Pain in the kidneys

■ Blood in the urine

Urinary Infections

Cystitis (an infection of the bladder and urinary
tubules) can be a serious problem if it spreads to
the kidneys. Mild cystitis and other urinary
infections can be cured with a mixture of
antiseptic herbs such as buchu and soothing
herbs such as marshmallow. Taking echinacea
or garlic at the same time improves the body’s
resistance to infection. Bilberry or cranberry
which are from the same genus, are excellent
for urinary infections.

© General cautions Seek immediate professional help if
cystitis is severe or recurrent, or if there is blood in the
urine or pain around the kidneys or small of the back.

General Remedies

Herbs Buchu ( Barosma betulina, p. 71), cornsilk
(Zea mays, p. 154), marshmallow (Althaea
officinalis, p. 165)

Remedy Make an infusion with 5 g of each herb
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Divide into 4 doses
and drink throughout the day.

Option Substitute juniper (Juniperus communis,
p. 224) or golden rod (Solidago virgaurea, p. 271)
for buchu.

Caution Do not take juniper or buchu during pregnancy.

Herb Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, p. 147)
Remedy Make a decoction of the berries and
drink I %-2!4 cups (450-600 ml) a day.

Tip Cranberry juice may be substituted for bilberry
decoction.

Herbs Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59), echinacea
(Echinacea spp., p. 92)

Remedy Take either or both herbs in capsule
or tablet form.

Note Take in addition to other remedies.

Fungal Infections

Fungal infections are common and can be hard
to treat. Vaginal yeast infection is increasingly
found as a side effect of conventional antibiotic
treatment. Calendula is helpful for treating this
troublesome condition. Candidiasis (accelerated
growth of Candida albicans, a yeastlike organism
within the gut) can cause considerable problems,
but mild cases may be helped with antiseptic
and antifungal herbs, such as garlic. All types of
fungal infections can be helped with herbs that
boost the immune system, such as echinacea,
as well as by applying an external remedy to
the affected area.

Diet

Diet is an important factor when treating
fungal problems. Cut out or reduce intake
of bread, alcohol, and other foods containing
yeast or sugar.

Self-help

Candidiasis sufferers can take probiotic capsules
or live yogurt to help the growth of beneficial
bacteria in the intestines. For yeast infection, live
yogurt can be inserted into the vagina.

O General caution Seek professional advice for
candidiasis, as it is often a difficult condition to treat.

General Remedies

Herbs Echinacea (Echinacea spp., p. 92), thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Mix 2 parts echinacea tincture to
I part thyme tincture and take I tsp twice a day
with water.

Herb Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Take 1-2 garlic cloves a day, crushed
and swallowed with water or mixed with food.

Vaginal Yeast Infection
Herb Calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Make an infusion and allow to cool.
Strain and use as a douche or wash.

Option Add the infusion to a bath and soak for
20 minutes.

Herb Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia, p. 112)
Remedy Use pessaries or place 1-2 drops of
essential oil diluted with 3 drops of olive oil on a
tampon and insert into the vagina (this may sting).
Remove after 2-3 hours and only use once a day.

O Caution During pregnancy, use these pessaries and
tampons only with professional advice.

Oral Thrush

Herbs Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, p. 101),
myrrh (Commiphora mol mol, p. 85), echinacea
(Echinacea spp., p. 92)

Remedy Mix equal parts of the tincture of
each herb. Take I tsp as a mouthwash with
water every 3-4 hours, as required.

Candidiasis

Herbs Elderflower (Sambucus nigra, p. 132),
calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73), thyme
(Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Make an infusion with 8 g of each
herb to 3 cups (750 ml) water and drink
11/4-1 % cups (300-450 ml) each day.

Herb Pau d’Arco (Tabebuia spp., p. 139)
Remedy Make a decoction with 12 g bark to 3
cups (750 ml) of water. Divide into 3-4 doses
and drink throughout the day. Alternatively,
take capsules or 1/i tsp of tincture with water
up to 3 times a day.

Fungal Skin Infections, Including
Athlete’s Foot

See p. 304.

314

Reproductive & Menstrual Problems

Women have always tended to use herbal medicine more
than men, traditionally in their role as healers in the home
and now, in part, due to the proven effects of many herbs on
the reproductive system. Herbs such as wild yam contain
constituents similar to the female sex hormones, estrogen
and progesterone, which can help regulate the menstrual cycle,
increase or decrease fertility, and support the body through menopause.
Common menstrual problems, such as cramps, premenstrual syndrome, and
heavy bleeding, respond well to self-treatment. However, chronic conditions
or infertility in either women or men require professional attention.

Chaste Tree

(Vitex agnus-castus)

©Seek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Severe pain in the abdomen or pelvis

■ Significant or sudden change in menstruation,
such as prolonged, heavy, or irregular periods

Important Note

For the best treatment, consult an herbalist.
Seek professional advice before taking a
remedy if you believe that you may be
pregnant. See Pregnancy, p. 3 17.

□ Menstrual Problems

The menstrual cycle can be disturbed for many
reasons, most of them relating to hormonal
imbalances. Other causes include stress, too
much or too little exercise, weight problems, food
sensitivity or allergy, steroids, the contraceptive
pill, chronic illness, vitamin and mineral deficiency,
and even excess caffeine, alcohol, or smoking. To
determine the underlying cause, it is important
to consult a professional practitioner.

Taking remedies for menstrual
problems. The remedies listed should all be
taken at the appropriate point in the cycle for
2-3 cycles.

The normal menstrual cycle lasts about
28 days. If this cycle varies greatly from one
period to another without reason, it could be
termed irregular.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and
period pain have many causes and are
experienced at some stage by most women.
Breast tenderness, sore nipples, and fluid
retention are common symptoms.

Heavy periods can result in anemia. If your
period lasts longer than 5 days or if you have
to change your protection every 2 hours, your
periods may be too heavy. Nettle ( Urtica dioica,
p. 146) is an excellent tonic, especially for heavy
bleeding, as it contains more iron than spinach
and can be eaten as a nourishing vegetable.

Self-help

Combine herbal remedies with a diet high
in fresh vegetables and fruit, and low in fatty
foods, sugar, and alcohol. Try not to smoke.
Regular exercise, particularly of the waist and
pelvis, is helpful, as is a relaxed attitude to life.

All reproductive problems will benefit from this
simple approach.

Q General caution For any chronic menstrual
problem, it is wise to seek professional attention,
especially if your periods are very heavy or painful.

Irregular Cycle

Herb Chaste tree ( Vitex agnus-castus, p. 151)
Remedy Take tablets, or take 30-40 drops
(1.5-2 ml) of tincture with water each morning
on waking for at least 2 months.

Herb Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca, p. 227)
Remedy Make an infusion and take TA— I % cups
(150-300 ml) a day for up to 3 monthly cycles.
Caution Do not take if menstrual bleeding is heavy.

Premenstrual Syndrome

Herbs Vervain ( Verbena officinalis, p. 149), linden
(777/0 spp., p. 277)

Remedy (Internal) Make an infusion using
either herb (or an equal mix of both) and drink up
to 3 cups (750 ml) throughout the day.

Herb Valerian ( Valeriana offcinalis, p. 148)
Remedy (Internal) Take tablets containing
valerian, or take 20^0 drops of tincture with
water up to 5 times a day.

Herb Rosemary ( Rosmarinus offcinalis, p. 128)
Remedy (External) Make an infusion with
I tbsp of dried or 2 tbsp of fresh leaves to
I quart (liter) of water and strain into a warm bath
each morning. Alternatively, add 5-10 drops
of essential oil to a bath.

Note Also try the chaste tree remedy under Irregular
Cycle above.

Breast Tenderness & Sore Nipples
Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,

P- 77)

Remedy Make a compress with an infusion of
50 g of herb and I cup (250 ml) of water. Place
gently over the breasts. Repeat as often as
required to achieve relief.

Herb Calendula ( Calendula offcinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Apply ointment to the nipples.

If breastfeeding, wipe off the ointment
before feeding.

Fluid Retention

Herb Dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale, p. 141)
Remedy Make an infusion with the leaves and
drink up to 1/6 cups (450 ml) a day.

Heavy Menstrual Bleeding
Herb Chuang xiong ( Ligusticum wallachii),
white peony ( Paeonia lactiflora, p. 117), dong quai
(Angelica sinensis, p. 63), rehmannia (Rehmannia
glutinosa, p. 125)

Remedy Mix equal parts of each root and
make a decoction using 15 g of the mixture
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Drink in 3 equal
doses throughout the day.

Note Any of these herbs will help, but they are
best together, in which form they are known as
Four Things Soup.

Herb Shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris,
p. 183), nettle ( Urtica dioica, p. 146)

Remedy Make an infusion using 7.5 g of each
herb (or 15 g of shepherd’s purse only) to 3
cups (750 ml) of water. Divide into 3-4 doses
and drink throughout the day.

Period Pain

Flavor the decoctions with I heaping tsp
of caraway seeds (Carum carvi, p. 184). Mix
before decocting.

Herbs Wild yam (Dioscorea villosa, p. 9 I),
cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150), black haw
(Viburnum prunifolium, p. 28 I)

Remedy Make a decoction using 15 g of herb
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Sip small amounts
during the day; or take 2 tsp of tincture with
water 3-4 times a day for up to 3 days, then
reduce the dose to I tsp a day for 5 days, or
take tablets.

Herb White peony (Paeonia lactiflora, p. 117)
Remedy Make a decoction using 20 g of root
to 3 cups (750 ml) of water. Sip this throughout
the day.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

315

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

□ Fertility Problems in Women

Although much more research is needed, herbal
medicine does appear to increase fertility in
women who are trying to conceive, especially
if the problem is related to hormonal imbalances,
age, or the amount of mucus produced by the
cervix. Where there appears to be no physical
problem preventing conception, for example a
blocked fallopian tube, ovarian cysts, or internal
scarring, herbal medicines are well worth trying.
Diet, exercise, and lifestyle may also play a
significant role in improving fertility.

Aiding Conception
Herb Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus, p. 151)
Remedy Take tablets or take 20-40 drops of
tincture with water each morning for a maximum
of 3 months at a time.

Herb Dong quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63)
Remedy Take tablets or make a decoction using
12 g of root to 3 cups (750 ml) of water and drink
each day for up to 3 months.

Caution Discontinue if you become pregnant.

Low Sex Drive

Herb Schisandra (Schisandra chinensis, p. 133)
Remedy Soak 5 g (a small handful) of berries
in water overnight. Strain the berries and make
a decoction with I cup (250 ml) of water. Brew
for 15 minutes and take the dose each day.

Herb Shatavari (Asparagus racemosus, p. 174)
Remedy Take I tsp of tincture twice a day
with water.

Fertility Problems in Men

Impotence in men is a common problem, and
herbal medicine has been used throughout
history to help restore healthy sexual function.

A low sperm count, which is a common cause
of infertility, is often related to lifestyle and
general state of health.

Saw palmetto is atonic herb that increases
stamina. It benefits the male sexual organs and
is reputed to increase potency.

Ashwagandha is an all-around tonic that is
not as stimulating as ginseng, but is nonetheless
helpful in restoring normal vitality after a long¬
term illness or stress.

General Vitality

Herb Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera, p. 152)
Remedy Take 2 g of the dried root a day, either
by chewing it, or taking it in powder form mixed
with honey and, if required, water. Take for up to
6 weeks.

Impotence & Premature Ejaculation
Herb Ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118)

Remedy Take 0.5-1 g up to 3 times a day for
6 weeks at a time, either by chewing the root,
cooking it in a soup or stew, or taking it in
tablet form.

Note Ginseng is the best-known remedy for this
condition. However, schisandra (Schisandra chinensis,
p. 133) berries also benefit male sexuality. Take as
listed above in Fertility Problems in Women under Low Sex
Drive for up to 6 weeks.

Caution Do not take caffeine while taking ginseng.

Herb Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens, p. 136)
Remedy Take A tsp of tincture with water
up to 3 times a day for up to 6 weeks.

Note Saw palmetto is also an excellent remedy for
symptoms associated with an enlarged prostate.

□ Menopausal Problems

Menopause is defined as the cessation of
menstruation. It usually takes place between
the ages of 45 and 55. After two years without
having a period, you can be sure that the
“change of life” has occurred.

Both estrogen and progesterone levels
decline during menopause despite opinion
to the contrary. Herbs such as chaste tree,
which have a progesterogenic effect, are as
important

as those that support estrogen levels, since both
hormones appear to help maintain bone density,
reducing the risk of osteoporosis.

Maintaining vitality is important during
menopause, since many problems result
as much from being run-down and tired, as
from hormonal changes. If you feel low and
exhausted, some of these remedies may help
to raise vitality and spirits. St. John’s wort is an
excellent medicine for depression.

Hot flashes and night sweats are principally
caused by hormonal changes. However, nervous
exhaustion increases the occurrence of these
conditions.

Q General caution Seek professional advice if there
is prolonged or irregular menstrual bleeding.

Decreased Estrogen
& Progesterone Levels
Herb Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus, p. 151)
Remedy Take tablets, or 20-40 drops of tincture
with water each morning.

Herb Shatavari (Asparagus racemosus, p. 174)
Remedy Take Vi tsp of tincture 2-3 times daily
with water.

Herb Black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79)
Remedy Take tablets, or take 25 drops of
tincture with water 3 times a day.

Option Black cohosh combines well with sage.

Mix equal parts of each tincture and take 30-40
drops (1.5-2 ml) with water 3 times a day.

Depression & Decreased Vitality
Herb St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum ,

p. 106)

Remedy Take A tsp of tincture with water
3 times a day.

Herb Oats (Avena sativa, p. 175)

Remedy Eat 25-50 g of oats as a breakfast cereal,
or with other food.

Option In addition, make an infusion with oat
straw. Divide into 3 doses and drink throughout
the day.

Hot Flashes & Night Sweats
Herb Sage (Salvia ofpcinalis, p. 131)

Remedy Make an infusion and drink \ 2 A cups
(450 ml), either during the day, or mainly at
night, if this is when the problem chiefly occurs.

Herbs White willow (Salix alba, p. 129), black
cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79)

Remedy Take one of the above herbs in
tablet form, or take I tsp of tincture with
water at night.

Herb White peony (Paeonia lactiflora, p. 117)
Remedy Make a decoction with 20 g root to 3
cups (750 ml) of water. Sip throughout the day.

316

Pregnancy

Although in many cultures herbs have traditionally been taken
throughout pregnancy, it is wise to take herbs medicinally only
when essential, Some herbs such as German chamomile
(i Chamomilla recutita, p. 77), linden (Tilia spp., p. 277), and cornsilk
(Zea mays, p. 154) are very useful and can be taken safely for
2-3 weeks at a time during pregnancy C>ther herbs should be
avoided altogether, as they have constituents that stimulate the
muscles of the uterus and, in large doses, could cause a miscarriage. It is safe
to continue using herbs in cooking throughout pregnancy.

Chamomile

(Chamomilla recutita)

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Prolonged nausea causing an inability to
eat properly and frequent vomiting leading
to dehydration

■ Frequent urination lasting for more than
3 days (or with pain after 2 days)

■ Breast pain with swollen glands under the
arms or fever

■ Fluid retention that has not reduced after
3 days

ti Maintaining Vitality

Pregnancy is a time of great change for the
body Many minor ailments can be relieved by
homemade herbal remedies.

Morning sickness (sensations of nausea)
need not be restricted to the morning.

Generally starting in the 4th-6th week and
lasting until the 14th-16th week, morning
sickness has many causes, including hormone
fluctuations, low blood pressure, low sugar
levels, food allergies, poor diet, and stress.
Edema (fluid retention and bloating) is
extremely common during pregnancy. Water
seeps from the blood vessels into the surrounding
tissue, causing puffiness. The ankles and calves
are mostly affected.

Constipation often occurs as pregnancy
develops. Pressure increases on the lower
bowel, impeding circulation.

Heartburn (pain in the center of the chest)
may also be caused by increased pressure within
the body.

Stretch marks sometimes appear as the body
swells. They can be minimized by rubbing aloe
vera gel or olive oil into the skin to maintain
its elasticity.

Childbirth can be helped by drinking raspberry
leaf tea, a traditional remedy that prepares the
uterine muscles for labor and giving birth.

Herbs During Pregnancy

■ For the first 3 months avoid all herbal remedies,
including essential oils, unless professionally
prescribed.

■ The following herbs are particularly dangerous
and should on no account be taken during
pregnancy: blue cohosh ( Coulophyllum thalictroides,
p. 185), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis, p. 105),
juniper (juniperus communis, p. 224), pennyroyal
(Mentha pulegium, p. 235), yarrow (Achillea
millefolium, p. 56), and therapeutic doses of sage
(Salvia officinalis, p. 131).

Morning Sickness & Nausea

The following remedies are an exception and can
be taken during the first 3 months of pregnancy.

Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,

P- 77)

Remedy Make an infusion in a covered
container. Sip small quantities during the day.

Do not drink more than 3 cups (750 ml) a day.

Herb Ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155)

Remedy Make an infusion with M-l tsp of
grated fresh ginger per 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water.
Sip small amounts frequently throughout the day,
rather than drinking 3 /4 cup (150 ml) at a time.
Take a maximum of I % cups (450 ml) a day.

Herb Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212)

Remedy Make an infusion with 'A tsp of seeds
per 3 /4 cup (150 ml) of water and then drink up to
1 2 A cups (450 ml) a day.

Edema

Herb Cornsilk (Zea mays, p. 154)

Remedy Make an infusion and drink up to 3 cups
(750 ml) a day.

Constipation

Herbs Psyllium (Plantago spp., p. 123), flaxseed
(Linum usitatissimum, p. 109)

Remedy Take 1-2 tsp of either of the seeds
with a large glass of water each day or soak them
in cold water overnight before taking.

Note Eat more dried fruit, especially figs.

Heartburn

Herb Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria, p. 98)
Remedy Make an infusion and drink 3 /4-1 % cup
(150-300 ml) a day.

Headache & Nervous Tension
Herb Linden (Tilia spp., p. 277)

Remedy Make an infusion and drink 1/4-214 cups
(450-600 ml) a day.

Preparing for Childbirth
Herb Raspberry (Rubus idaeus, p. 264)
Remedy Make an infusion using I tsp of
the chopped fresh or dried leaf per 3 /4 cup
(150 ml) of water. Brew for 5-6 minutes and
drink 3 /4-1 cup (150-300 ml) a day during the
last 10 weeks of pregnancy.

Cautions Do not leave the infusion to brew for
more than 5-6 minutes. Do not take until the last
10 weeks of pregnancy.

Stretch Marks

Herbs Aloe vera (Aloe vera, p. 60), olive
(Olea europaea, p. 241)

Remedy Rub aloe vera gel over the affected
areas or massage olive oil firmly into the skin
1-2 times a day.

Poor Sleep

See Insomnia (the German chamomile, linden,
lavender, and passionflower remedy under
General Remedies), p. 309.

Anemia & High Blood Pressure

See Circulatory Problems, p. 301.

Hemorrhoids

See Varicose Veins & Hemorrhoids, p. 302
and Constipation & Diarrhea, p. 307.

Backache

See Back Pain, p. 3 13.

Varicose Veins

See Varicose Veins & Hemorrhoids, p. 302.

Vaginal Yeast Infections

See Fungal Infections, p. 3 14.

Bladder & Kidney Infections

See Edema, left.

Healing After Childbirth

See Cleansing Wounds & Healing Wounds,
p. 304.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

317

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HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

Infants & Children

The following herbs are considered particularly suitable for
children, easing symptoms and speeding recovery. Most of the
remedies are best given as infusions, and can be given in a bottle.
Infusions can be flavored with honey (see Cautions right) or
maple syrup if necessary, but they are better given unsweetened.
The dosages given are for I-6-year-olds, but they can be adjusted
to suit other age groups (see below). Many of the remedies listed
in other sections are also suitable for babies and children; herbs that are not
appropriate are clearly identified (see p. 299 for dosage requirements before
administering any adult remedies).

Slippery Elm

(Ulmus rubra)

OSeek immediate professional
advice for:

■ Severe diarrhea or vomiting; a temperature
of I02°F (39°C); fever with convulsions;
breathing difficulties; unusual drowsiness;
high-pitched crying

O Cautions Do not give babies under 6 months any
medicine without professional advice. Do not give
honey to children under I year as in rare cases it can
cause food poisoning.

General Ailments

Infants and children are susceptible to a wide
array of ailments.

Digestive upsets that result in diarrhea
and constipation can be the result of food
intolerance or allergy in infants, especially
when foods such as dairy are being introduced
into the diet. Other minor digestive upsets due
to infection or inflammation can cause loss
of appetite.

Colic is a spasm of the gut causing cramping
pain in the abdomen. It usually occurs during the
first 3 months of life, particularly after feeding
in the evening, when the digestion may not be
working so well.

Diaper rash occurs when urine, moisture, and
irritants in the diaper cause the baby’s skin to
become red, sore, and damp. It’s essential to clean
the baby thoroughly at each diaper change. Ensure
that cloth diapers are thoroughly rinsed, avoid
leaving a wet, chafing diaper on the baby, and
remove the diaper completely whenever possible.
Cradle cap is a thick yellow-brown
encrustation on the baby’s scalp, caused by
overactivity of the sebum oil glands.
Headaches, colds, congestion, and chest
coughs are common problems in childhood
and often respond well to herbal treatment.
Insomnia is a common childhood problem
even though children require more sleep
than adults and should sleep with ease. Over¬
excitement, teething, a wet diaper, or being too
hot or cold may interfere with sleep patterns.
Herbs such as linden will encourage a relaxed
night’s sleep.

Dosage

The dosages on this page are for I -6-year-olds.

For other ages, adapt the doses as follows:

6 - 12 months old —A dose

7- 12 years old— I A dose

To adapt remedies from elsewhere in the book
for children, see p. 299.

Digestive Upsets, Gas, & Colic

The following infusions are suitable for infants over
6 months. For those under 6 months, the infusions
can be taken by breastfeeding mothers.

Herb Ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155)

Remedy Give !4 level tsp of powder with % cup
(75 ml) of hot water I -2 times a day.

Herb German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,

P- 77)

Remedy Make an infusion with I level tsp to
34 cup (150 ml) of water. Give up to l A cups
(450 ml) a day.

Herbs Anise (Pimpinella anisum, p. 248), fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212)

Remedy Make an infusion with I level tsp of either
of the seeds to 34 cup (150 ml) of water Give up to I
cup (300 ml) a day.

Herb Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145)

Remedy Mix I tsp of powder with hot water to
make a paste, then blend with cold or warm water
as required and flavor with honey, cinnamon, or
maple syrup. Give up to 50 g powder in doses
during the day.

Constipation

Herbs Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum, p. 109),
slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145)

Remedy Give I tsp of flaxseed or slippery elm
with a large glass of water each day.

Diarrhea

Herbs Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria, p. 162),
common plantain (Plantago major, p. 25 I)
Remedy Make an infusion using 15 g of either
herb to Vi liter of water and give up to \'A cup
(300 ml) each day.

Diaper Rash & Inflamed Skin Rashes
Herb Chickweed (Stellaria media, p. 272)
Remedy Apply ointment 1-2 times a day.

Herb Calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73)
Remedy Apply ointment or cream to clean, dry

skin at each diaper change.

Note For diaper rash, the ointment is best.

Herbs Calendula (Calendula officinalis, p. 73),
nettle (Urtica dioica, p. 146)

Remedy Make an infusion with I level tsp
of each herb to 34 cup (150 ml) of water. Give
34- 1 !A cup (150-300 ml) a day.

Cradle Cap

Herb Olive (Olea europaea, p. 241)

Remedy Apply olive oil to the affected area
1-2 times a day.

Colds, Congestion, & Chest Coughs
Herb Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Make an infusion with I level tsp herb
to 34 cup (150 ml) of water. Give 36- 1 cup a day.

Herbs Elderberry (Sambucus nigra, p. 132),
pelargonium (Pelargonium sidoides, p. 120),
thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Make an infusion with I level tsp thyme
leaves to 36 cup of water. Give 36-1 cup a day.
Remedy Give elderberry or pelargonium
extract, as recommended by practitioner
or supplier.

Earache

Herb Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Break open a garlic oil capsule, put
I drop on a cotton ball, and plug into the ear.

Teething

Herbs German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,
p. 77), slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145)
Remedy Give German chamomile infusion
(see Digestive Upsets ) or make a paste from
slippery elm powder and the infusion, and rub
on the gums.

Difficulty in Sleeping

Herbs German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita,
p. 77), linden (Tilia spp., p. 277)

Remedy Make an infusion using either herb and
give 34 I % cups (150-300 ml) before bedtime.

318

Older Adults

Traditionally, as we age, the “fire” or qi within us glows less
brightly and our vitality slowly weakens. Many herbal medicines
are ideally suited to treating the health problems that begin when
people reach their late fifties, such as circulatory problems, weak
digestion, and poor memory. The herbs recommended here can
help to maintain good health, preventing or reducing the severity
of symptoms that are often accepted as an inevitable consequence
of aging. Self-treatment for other problems often experienced later in life, such
as arthritis, is suggested in earlier sections.

Important Note

■ If taking conventional medication, tell your
doctor if you intend to take an herbal remedy
This is especially important for the elderly

■ All remedies on this page need to be taken
continuously for up to 3 months.

■ If you are over 70 years of age, take 3 /4 of
the stated dose for remedies given on other
pages in this book.

□ Maintaining Vitality

Many herbs help to maintain vitality.

Thyme is a much underrated herb. Recent
research has discovered that it has antiaging
and tonic properties that maintain vitality and
reduce the chance of catching colds, flu, and
other respiratory infections.

Ashwagandha is a tonic, calming herb that
may slow the aging process. It is particularly
suited to aid recovery from long-term illness.
Ginseng is well known as a remedy that
supports vitality and resistance to stress and
infection in older people.

Rhodiola has similar tonic, restorative
properties to ashwagandha and ginseng, but
enhances mental performance and has a mild
antidepressant activity.

General Remedy

Herb Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143)

Remedy Make a standard infusion.

Take I 14-1 2 / 3 cups (300-450 ml) a day.

Stress or Convalescence
Herb Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera, p. 152)
Remedy Take I g of the root 2-3 times a day,
either by chewing it or chopping it and mixing with
a little water.

Herb Ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118)

Remedy Take I g 1-2 times a day for up to
3 months. Chew the fresh or dried root, cook
it in a soup, or take in tablet form.

Caution Do not take caffeine while taking ginseng.

Option If ginseng is too stimulating, take 3 g of
codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula, p. 83) a day in
the same way as ginseng. This has a milder, but
nonetheless tonic and strengthening, effect.

Nervous Exhaustion & Stress
Herb Oats (Avena sativa, p. 175)

Remedy Eat 25 g of oats each day (for example,
as a hot cereal). Alternatively, take 14 tsp of the
tincture twice a day.

Herb Rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea, p. 127)
Remedy Take 14 tsp (2.5 ml) of tincture 2-3
times a day or as recommended by supplier.

General Conditions

Conditions that arise through aging need patient,
long-term treatment.

Ginkgo is the oldest tree on the planet. Its
leaves maintain good circulation to the head and
brain, improving memory, concentration, and
energy levels. Evidence suggests it may reduce
the risk of a stroke.

Gotu kola has significant anti-inflammatory
activity, for example in arthritis, but is also atonic
that helps to protect the nervous system and to
maintain memory and cognition.

Garlic has great value as a long-term dietary
supplement, helping to maintain healthy
circulation, balance blood-sugar levels, reduce
high blood pressure and fat levels in the blood,
and improve resistance to infection, especially
bronchitis.

Rehmannia, a Chinese tonic herb with
strengthening and mildly stimulant properties,
appears to lower blood pressure and blood fat
levels. It is suitable for people who have a weak
liver and metabolism.

Gentian, a bitter herb, helps the absorption
of food by maintaining digestive secretions,
which diminish with age.

Failing Memory & Concentration
Herb Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba, p. 100)

Remedy Take ginkgo tablets. These need to be
taken regularly for at least 3 months.

Herb Gotu kola (Centella asiatica, p. 76)

Remedy Take tablets or 14 tsp tincture twice
a day.

Poor Circulation & High Blood Pressure
Herb Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59)

Remedy Take I -2 raw cloves a day with food,
or take garlic tablets or capsules on a regular basis.

Herb Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum,

P- 210)

Remedy Make a standard infusion and drink up
to 114 cup (300 ml) a day.

Chronic Infections

Herbs Garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59), echinacea
(Echinacea spp., p. 92)

Remedy Take 1-2 raw cloves of garlic each day
with food, or take either herb in tablet or capsule
form on a regular basis.

Weakened Liver & Metabolism
Herb Rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa,
p. 125)

Remedy Chew 5 g of root 1-3 times a day, or
make a decoction with 5 g of root to I cup
(250 ml) of water and take 1-3 times a day.

Weakened Digestion
Herb Gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99)

Remedy Take 5-10 drops of tincture with
water about 30 minutes before eating,

3 times a day.

Caution Do not take gentian if you suffer from
acid indigestion or a peptic ulcer.

Arthritic Pain & Rheumatism

See Joint Pain & Stiffness , Including Arthritis
& Gout, p. 3 13.

Note Take one of the remedies for a maximum of
2-3 weeks. If there is no improvement, consult an
herbal practitioner.

Before taking any herbal remedies, see pages 290 & 298-299

319

www.ebook3000.com

HERBAL REMEDIES FOR HOME USE

CONSULTING AN HERBAL PRACTITIONER

Consulting an Herbal Practitioner

Many common health problems, such as colds and indigestion, do not require
a professional consultation and can be successfully treated using herbs at home.
However, persistent or more serious ailments, such as stomach ulcers and
shingles, can be difficult or dangerous to treat on one’s own and need the
advice and treatment of a qualified herbal practitioner or naturopath.

What Does Herbal Medicine
Treat Best?

It is difficult to state exactly which ailments
best respond to herbal medicine, since almost
no research has been undertaken with this
question in mind. Nevertheless, the experience
of herbal practitioners and their patients suggests
that many chronic and some acute illnesses readily
improve with herbal medicine. Conditions that
are commonly treated by herbalists include
allergies, arthritis, chronic or frequent infections,
circulatory problems, liver disease, menstrual and
gynecological problems, skin disorders, and stress-
related complaints such as headaches, insomnia,
and palpitations.

Choosing a Practitioner

Herbal practitioners tend to treat ill health more
effectively as they gain greater experience. Anyone
with a serious illness, such as rheumatoid arthritis
or cancer, should seek an experienced practitioner.
Nevertheless, herbalists newly launched into
practice often bring a more flexible approach to
treatment, having the time and enthusiasm for
patients that may be lacking in their more senior
counterparts. That said, a trusting relationship is as
important as the treatment itself—always find a
practitioner in whom you feel confident. The best
way to find an herbalist is by recommendation, or
by looking on the websites of the herbal
organizations listed on this page.

The Consultation

On visiting an herbalist you should be made to feel
welcome, receiving an attentive and sympathetic
ear. The first consultation takes about an hour, so
there is ample time for the practitioner to gain a
rounded view of your health problems and life as
a whole.

You will probably be asked about family traits,
diet, lifestyle, levels of stress, and any particular
anxieties that you may have. If appropriate, a
physical examination will take place, and the
practitioner will explain as far as possible what
is wrong and how much improvement can be
expected. Clinical tests may include urine analysis

or measuring hemoglobin levels from a drop
of blood. The herbalist will then recommend
appropriate treatment, usually involving an herbal
prescription, dietary advice, and a suggested
exercise regimen. If you are already undergoing
conventional treatment, the herbalist will advise
you on its compatibility with herbal medicine and,
if necessary, devise a program to discontinue
pharmaceutical medicines gradually.

Subsequent consultations generally last about
30 minutes and are likely to take place every 4 to
6 weeks for a period of 3 months. This, of course,
may vary, depending on the nature of the treatment.

Safety of Herbs

Although herbal medicine is extremely safe, the
fact that it is natural does not necessarily mean it
is harmless. The best guarantee against poor
treatment is to consult a well-trained practitioner
who belongs to a recognized professional association
and prescribes high-quality herbal medicines.

Professional Training

Traditionally, herbalists learned their craft by
apprenticeship. Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654),
for example, was apprenticed to an apothecary for
10 years. Today, herbal practitioners are generally
trained at a college or university, acquiring their
clinical skills in herbal and, in some cases, hospital
clinics. The curriculum typically includes an in-depth
study of medical sciences, such as physiology,
pathology, pharmacology, and botany, as well as what
can be called the herbal sciences, materia medica,
nutrition, and therapeutics. Modern training
attempts to honor and retain the best of traditional
herbal medicine, while incorporating the insights of
contemporary medical science and research.

Herbalism Worldwide

Western medical herbalism is the traditional form
of herbal medicine practiced in Britain. However,
the Chinese and Ayurvedic traditions, among others,
are becoming more popular and are raising their
standards of training. If you wish to consult a
Chinese or Ayurvedic herbalist, it is strongly
recommended that you select a member of the
associations listed on this page.

The regulation of medical herbalism varies
considerably around the world. In the Far East,
practitioners and hospitals routinely offer herbal
medicine, acupuncture, and other traditional
healing practices alongside Western conventional
medicine. In the U.S., the leading practitioner
organization is the American Herbalists Guild.

Herbal practitioners in continental Europe
are known as phytotherapists, and are usually
conventional medical practitioners who have
studied plant medicine at the postgraduate level.

In Australia, the National Herbalists’ Association
of Australia (NHAA) is the leading professional
body of herbal practitioners.

In many parts of the world, herbal medicine is
unregulated. In this situation, it is wise to be
cautious and, as far as possible, to find a practitioner
based on personal recommendation.

Herbal Practitioner Organizations

This list is made up of recommended herbal
practitioner organizations active in the U.S.
and Canada.

UNITED STATES

American Herbalists Guild

www.americanherbalistsguild.com

American Association of
Naturopathic Physicians

www. n at u ro pat h i c. o rg

National Certification Commission for
Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine
(NCCAOM)

https://mx.nccaom.org/FindAPractitioner

National Ayurvedic Medical Association

www.ayurvedanama.org

California College of Ayurveda

www.ayu rvedacol I ege.com/resou rces/
Ayurveda-practitioner-CAS

CANADA

The Canadian Herbalist’s Association
of British Columbia

www.chaofbc.ca

Ontario Herbalists Association

www.herbalists.on.ca

Glossary

Many plant constituents and their actions
are explained in How Medicinal Plants Work,

pp. 10-16.

Medical

Abortifacient Causes abortion

Adaptogenic Helps the body adapt to stress and supports
normal function

Anabolic Promotes tissue growth

Anesthetic Numbs perception of external sensations

Analgesic Reduces pain

Anaphrodisiac Inhibits libido and sexual activity

Anorexia Lack of appetite

Anthelmintic Expels or destroys parasitic worms

Anthraquinones Irritatethe intestinal wall causing a

bowel movement

Antibiotic Destroys or inhibits microorganisms
Anticoagulant Prevents blood clotting
Antifungal Combats fungal infections
Anti-inflammatory Reduces inflammation
Antimicrobial Destroys or inhibits microorganisms
Antioxidant Prevents oxidation and breakdown of tissues
Antiseptic Destroys or inhibits microorganismsthat
cause infection

Antispasmodic Relieves muscle spasm, or reduces
muscle tone

Antitussive Soothes and relieves coughing
Aperient Mild laxative
Aphrodisiac Excites libido and sexual activity
Aseptic Free from contamination by harmful bacteria,
viruses, or other microorganisms

Astringent Tightens mucous membranes and skin, reducing
secretions and bleeding from abrasions

Autonomic nervous system Part of the nervous system
responsible for the control of bodily functions that are not
consciously directed; e.g., sweating, beating of the heart
Ayurveda Traditional Indian system of medicine
(see pp. 36-39)

Bitter Stimulates secretions of saliva and digestive juices,
increasing appetite
Carcinogenic Causes cancer
Cardiotonic Improves heart function
Carminative Relieves digestive gas and indigestion
Carrier oil Oil such as wheatgerm, to which essential oils
are added in order to dilute them for use
Cathartic A drastic purgative

Circulatory stimulant Increases blood flow, usually to a
given area; e.g., hands and feet

Colic Abdominal pain produced by strong contractions of
intestines or bladder

Compress A cloth pad soaked in a hot or cold herbal
extract and applied to the skin

Counterirritant Superficial irritant used to relieve more
deep-seated pain or discomfort

Cream A mixture of water and fat or oil that blends with
the skin

Decoction Water-based preparation of bark, roots, berries,
or seeds simmered in boiling water

Demulcent Coats, soothes, and protects body surfaces
such as the gastric mucous membranes

Depurative Detoxifying agent

Detoxification The process of aiding removal of toxins and
waste products from the body
Diaphoretic Induces sweating
Diuretic Stimulates urine flow

Doctrine of Signatures Theory that the appearance of
a plant reveals its medicinal properties
Eclectic Popular system of herbal medicine in 19th- and
early 20th-century North America

Elixir A liquid herbal preparation with a pleasant taste, due
to the addition of honey or sugar

Emetic Causes vomiting
Emmenagogue Stimulates menstrual flow
Emollient Softens or soothes the skin
Essential oil Distillation of volatile oils derived from
aromatic plants

Expectorant Stimulates coughing and helps clear phlegm
from the throat and chest
Febrifuge Reduces fever

Fixed oil A nonvolatile oil (plant constituent). An oil
produced by hot or cold infusion (preparation)

Galenical A medicine, in a standard formula, prepared
from plants

Hemostatic Stops or reduces bleeding

Hallucinogenic Causes visions or hallucinations

Hepatic Affects the liver

Hepatoprotective Protects the liver

Humor An important body fluid in traditional European or

Indian medicine (see p. 32)

Hypertension High blood pressure

Hypnotic Induces sleep

Hypoglycemic Lowers blood glucose levels

Hypotension Low blood pressure

Immune stimulant Stimulates the body’s immune

defenses to counter infection

Infusion Water-based preparation in which flowers, leaves,
or stems are brewed in a similar way to tea
Inhalation Breathing of medicinally infused steam or liquid
through the nasal passages

Intermittent fever A fever that recurs regularly; e.g.,
malaria

Laxative Promotes evacuation of the bowels
Liniment External medication applied by rubbing
Mydriatic Dilates the pupil of the eye
Narcotic Causes drowsiness or stupor and relieves pain
Nervine Restores the nerves; relaxes the nervous system

Neuralgia Pain resulting from irritation or inflammation of
a nerve

Edema Fluid retention

Estrogenic With a similar action to estrogen in the
body, supporting and maintaining the female reproductive
organs

Ointment A blend of fats or oils that form a protective
layer over the skin

Oxytocic Induces contractions of the uterus
Parasiticide Kills parasites

Parasympathetic nervous system Part of the nervous
system involved in vegetative functions, especially digestion
Pectoral Acts on the lungs
Photosensitive Heightened sensitivity to sunlight
Physiomedicalism 19th- and 20th-century American and
British system of herbal medicine

Poultice Herbal preparation usually applied hot to affected
area to alleviate pain and reduce swelling
Prostaglandins Chemicals in plants and the human
body that have a hormonal action affecting a wide range
of conditions including pain and inflammation

Purgative A very strong laxative

Qi Vital energy force in Chinese philosophy (see pp. 24-25)

Rubefacient Stimulates blood flow to skin, causing
reddening and warming

Sedative Reduces activity and nervous excitement
Simple An herb used on its own
Spasmolytic Relaxes muscles

Steroids Active chemicals, of animal and plant origin, with
powerful hormonal actions

Stimulant Increases rate of activity and nervous excitement
Stomachic Eases stomach pain or increases stomach activity
Styptic Stops bleeding when applied topically

Sympathetic nervous system Part of the nervous system
involved in maintaining arousal, alertness, and muscle tone

Systemic Affecting the body as a whole rather than
individual organs

Terpenes Molecules that form the base of most constituents
of volatile oils

Tincture Plant medicine prepared by macerating herb in
water and alcohol

Tonic Exerts a restorative or nourishing action on the body
Tonify Strengthens and restores body systems
Topical Application of herbal remedy to body surface
Vasoconstrictor Contracts and narrows blood vessels
Vasodilator Relaxes and widens blood vessels
Vermifuge Expels intestinal worms
Volatile oil Plant constituent distilled to produce essential oil
Vulnerary Heals wounds

Yin and yang Complementary opposites in Chinese
philosophy (see pp. 40-42)

Botanical

Aerial parts Parts of plant growing above ground
Annual Plant that completes its life cycle in a year
Aril Secondary covering over the seed in certain plants
Aromatic Plant with high levels of volatile oil

Axil Upper angle formed by leaf stem and supporting stem
or branch

Basal leaves Leaves growing from the base of the stem

Biennial Plant that completes its life cycle in 2 years,
generally flowering in the second year

Capsule Dry fruit that splits open when ripe to scatter seeds
Composite flowers Flowers made up of usually 2 types of
tiny florets, disc and ray; some have disc florets only

Compound Leaves or flowers made up of many individual
small flowers or leaflets

Cordate Having heart-shaped leaves

Corm Bulblike, underground storage organ formed by a
swollen stem base

Corolla Collective term for the petals of a flower
Deciduous Plant that sheds leaves each year

Dioecious Species with male and female parts on
separate plants

Herbaceous Plant that dies down at the end of the
growing season

Insectivorous Plant that traps and digests insects and other
small animals

Lanceolate Lance-shaped

Latex Milky fluid found in various plants and trees

Panicle A branched cluster of flowers on stalks in a
pyramid-shaped arrangement

Perennial Plant that lives for at least 3 seasons

Pinnate A compound leaf with leaflets growing in 2 rows

on each side of its mid-rib

Rhizome Underground storage stem

Stamen Male fertilizing organ of a flowering plant

Stigma Female organ of a flower

Succulent Plant with thick, fleshy leaves and/or stems

Trifoliate Plant with 3 leaves or leaflets

Tuber Thickened part of underground stem

Umbel Umbrella-like arrangement of flowers with all flower

stems arising from the same point

Whorl Ring of leaves or flowers radiating out horizontally
from a central point

Wildcrafting Harvesting herbs from the wild

www.ebook3000.com

GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography

This selected listing of references is provided as a guide to those interested
in learning more about the history, science, and present-day practice of
herbal medicine.

322

Herbal Medicine

Allen, D. & Hatfield, G.

Medicinal Plants in Folk Tradition
(USA, Timber Press, 2004)

Barker, J.

The Medicinal Flora of Britain and
Northwestern Europe
(UK, Winter Press, 2001)

Barnes, J., Anderson, L. A.,

& Phillipson, J. D.

Herbal Medicines

(UK, Pharmaceutical Press, 2007)

Bartram, T.

Encyclopaedia of Herbal Medicine

(UK, British Herbal Medicine Association, 1995)

Bensky, D. & Gamble, A.

Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica
(USA, Eastland Press, 1993)

Bone, K.

Clinical Guide to Blending Liquid Herbs
(UK, Churchill Livingstone, 2003)

Bown, D.

The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia

of Herbs & Their Uses

(UK, Dorling Kindersley, 1995)

Bradley, P. (ed.)

British Herbal Compendium

(UK, British Herbal Medicine Association, 1992)

Bremness, L.

Herbs

(UK, Dorling Kindersley, 1994)

British Herbal Medicine Association

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia

(UK, British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983)

Bruneton, J.

Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry of
Medicinal Plants
(UK, Intercept, 1995)

Bruton-Seal, J. & Seal, M.

Hedgerow Medicine

(UK, Merlin Unwin Books, 2008)

Chevallier, A.

Herbal First Aid

(UK, Amberwood, 1993)

Chevallier, A.

Herbal Remedies

(UK, Dorling Kindersley, 2007)

Chevallier, A.

Hypericum: Natural Antidepressant and More
(UK, Souvenir Press, 1999)

Chisti, G.

The Traditional Healers’ Handbook
(USA, Healing Arts Press, 1991)

Corrigan, D.

Indian Medicine: Echinacea
(UK, Amberwood)

Corrigan, D.

Sleep and Relaxation
(UK, Amberwood, 1986)

Duke, J.

The Green Pharmacy
(USA, Rodale Press, 1997)

Erasmus, U.

Fats That Heal, Fats That Kill
(Canada, Alive, 1993)

Felter, J. & Lloyd, J.

King’s American Dispensatory
(USA, Eclectic Medical, 1983)

Fulder, S.

The Book of Ginseng
(USA, Arts Press, 1993)

Fulder, S.

Ginger, The Ultimate Home Remedy
(UK, Souvenir Press, 1993)

Grieve, M. (ed. Leyel, C. F.)

A Modern Herbal (free download available)
(UK, Penguin, 1980)

Hoffman, D.

Holistic Herbal: A Safe and Practical Guide to
Making and Using Herbal Remedies (4th ed.)
(UK, Thorsons 2003)

Lis-Balchin, M.

Aromatherapy Science

(UK, Pharmaceutical Press, 2006)

Low, T.

Wild Herbs of Australia and New Zealand
(Australia, Angus & Robertson, 1985)

Martindale, W.

The Extra Pharmacopoeia (26th ed.)

(UK, The Pharmaceutical Press, 1972)

McIntyre, M.

Herbal Medicine for Everyone
(UK, Penguin, 1985)

Mills, S.

The Essential Book of Herbal Medicine
(UK, Penguin, 1991)

Mills, S.

Woman Medicine: Vitex Agnus-castus
(UK, Amberwood, 1992)

Mills, S. and Bone, K.

The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety
(UK, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2005)

Mills, S. and Bone, K.

Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy (2nd ed.)
(UK, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2013)

Murray, M.

The Healing Power of Herbs
(USA, Prima, 1995)

Ody, P.

The Complete Medicinal Herbal
(UK, Dorling Kindersley, 1993)

Ody, P.

Home Herbal

(UK, Dorling Kindersley, 1995)

Price, S. & Price, L.

Aromatherapy and Health Professionals (4th ed.)
(UK, Churchill Livingstone, 2011)

Priest, A. W. & Priest, L. R.

Herbal Medication
(UK, Fowler, 1984)

Rogers, C.

The Woman’s Guide to Herbal Medicine
(UK, Hamish Hamilton, 1995)

Romanucci-Ross, L., et al

The Anthropology of Medicine: from Culture
to Method

(USA, Bergin & Garvey, 1983)

Schauenberg, P. & Paris, F.

Guide to Medicinal Plants
(UK, Lutterworth Press, 1977)

Schultes, R. & Raffauf, R.

The Healing Forest

(USA, Dioscorides Press, 1990)

de Sloover, J. & Goossens, M.

Wild Herbs, a Field Guide
(UK, David & Charles, 1981)

Stargrove, M., Treasure, J.

& McKee, D. L.

Herb, Nutrient, and Drug Interactions: Clinical
Implications and Therapeutic Strategies
(UK, Mosby Elsevier, 2008)

Svoboda, R.

Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity
(UK, Arkana, 1992)

Talalaj, S. & Czechowicz, A.

Herbal Remedies, Harmful and
Benefcial Effects

(Australia, Hill of Content, 1989)

Trease, C. & Evans, W.

Pharmacognosy (13th ed.)

(UK, Balliere Tindall, 1989)

Uphof, J.

Dictionary of Economic Plants
(UK, Wheldon & Wesley, 1970)

Valnet, J.

The Practice of Aromatherapy
(UK, C.W. Daniel, 1980)

Vogel, H.

The Nature Doctor
(UK, Mainstream, 1990)

Wagner, H. et al. (ed.)

Economic and Medicinal Plant Research
(vols. 1-5)

(UK, Sangam, 1993)

Warrier, P. et al. (ed.)

Indian Medicinal Plants (vols. I -5)

(UK, Sangam, 1993)

Weiss, W.

Herbal Medicine
(UK, Arcanum, 1988)

White, A.

Herbs of Ecuador

(Ecuador, Imprenta Mariscal, 1976)

Williamson, E.

Potters Herbal Cyclopaedia
(UK, C.W. Daniel, 2003)

History of Herbal Medicine

Bruton-Seal, J. & Seal, M.

Herbalist’s Bible: John Parkinson’s Lost Classic

Rediscovered, The

(UK, Merlin Unwin Books, 2014)

Culpeper, N.

The English Physitian Enlarged
(UK, George Sawbridge, 1653)

Gerard, J.

The Herball or General History of Plants
(UK, John North, 1597)

Griggs, B.

New Green Pharmacy
(UK, Vermilion, 1997)

Gunther, R.

The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides
(UK, Oxford University Press, 1934)

Hoizey, D. & Hoizey, M. J.

A History of Chinese Herbal Medicine
(UK, Edinburgh University Press, 1993)

K’Eogh, J. (ed. Scott, M.)

An Irish Herbal

(UK, Aquarian Press, 1986)

Larre,C.

The Way of Heaven (Neijing suwen )

(UK, MonkeyPress, 1994)

Lloyd, G. (ed.)

Hippocratic Writings
(UK, Penguin, 1978)

Manniche, L.

An Ancient Egyptian Herbal

(UK, British Museum Publications, 1989)

Pliny the Elder (ed. Healey, J.)

Natural History: A Selection
(UK, Penguin, 1991)

Porter, R.

The Greatest Benefit to Mankind
(UK, Harper Collins, 1997)

Swinburne Clymer, R.

Nature’s Healing Agents

(USA, The Humanitarian Society, 1973)

Tobyn, G., Denham, A. &

Whitelegg, M.

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of Medicinal Plant Knowledge
(UK, Churchill Livingstone, 2010)

Unschuld, P.

Medicine in China

(UK, University of California Press, 1985)

Vogel, V.

American Indian Medicine

(UK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1970)

Journals

Australian Journal of Medical Herbalism
British Medical Journal
Canadian Journal of Herbalism
Herbalgram

Journal of Alternative and Complementary
Medicine

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
Journal of Herbal Medicine
Lancet

New Scientist
Phytomedicines
Planta Medica

Review of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants

Useful Websites

American Botanical Council
Magazine and articles
www.herbalgram.org

Herbmed

An online herbal database
www.herbmed.org

Health World Online

An online herbal materia medica

www.healthy.net/clinic/therapy/herbal/herbic/

herbs/index.asp

Henriette’s Herbal Homepage
Culinary and medicinal herb site
www.henriettes-herb.com

Natural Medicines Database
www.naturaldatabase.com

North American Institute of Medical Herbalism
www.medherb.com

Raintree’s Tropical Plant Database
www.rain-tree.com/plants.htm

U.S. National Library of Medicine
htt ps://www. n I m. n i h .gov/

MEDL/NEPLUS

Provides health and herb information
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus

PUBMED

Database of research articles
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

General Index

Bold page numbers refer to main plant entries in Key Medicinal Plants
and Other Medicinal Plants. Ailments for which there is a self-help
treatment are in bold.

A

abdominal pain 307

Abies balsamea 158
Aboriginal medicine 46
Abrus precatorius 38, 158
absinthe 66

Abutilon, A. indicum 158
A. trisulcatum 158

Acacia spp., A. catechu syn. Senegalia
catechu 14, 158-59
A. decurrens 46, 159
A. nilotica syn. A arabica 159
acai 210

Acanthopanacis gracilistylus 94
acanthus 159
Acanthus mollis 159
Achillea millefolium 33, 56, 291
Achyranthes, A. aspera 159
A. bidentata 159
acidity, stomach 307
acne 305
aconite 22, 160
Aconitum, A. carmichaelii 160
A. napellus 22, 160
Acorus, A. calamus 1 3, 39, 57, 298
A. calamus var. americanus 57
A. gramineus 57

adaptogenic herbs 12, 13, 118, 127
Adhatoda vasica 160
Adiantum, A. capillus-veneris 160
A. caudatum 160
Adonis vernalis 160
adulteration of herbal products 17
Aegle marmelos 18, 19, 161
Aesculus hippocastanum 15, 58
Aframomum melegueta 45
African cedar 185
African medicine 44-45
African rue 245
agar 215

Agastache rugosa 42, 161
agave 161

Agave, A. americana 161
A. sisalana 161
agnus castus 151
Agrimonia, A. eupatoria 162
A. pilosa 162
agrimony 162

Agropyron repens syn. Elymus repens 162
Ailanthus, A. altissima syn. A. glandulosa 162
A. malabrica 163
Ajuga, A. chamaepitys 163
A. decumbens 163
A. reptans 163
albizzia 163
Albizzia lebbeck 163
Alchemilla vulgaris 163 - 64 , 286
alchemy 24
alder 164-65
alder buckthorn 261 -62
alehoof 216
Aletris farinosa 164
Alexandrian senna 75
alfalfa 233-34
alkaloids 16, 26
“all-heal” (valerian) 148

allergic rhinitis 300
allergies 300-301,312
Allium, A. cepa I 1,59, 164
A. fistulosum 164

A. sativum 13, 19,28,36,49,51,59,

164, 287
A. sibiricum 164
A. ursinum 59, 164
allspice 248

Alnus glutinosa syn. A. rotundifolia 164-65
Aloe, A. ferox 60

A. vera syn. A. barbadensis 45, 60,

286, 289

aloe vera 45, 60, 161,286,289
Aloysia triphylla see Lippia citriodora
Alpinia, A. officinarum 61
A. katsumadai 61
A. officinarum 22, 4 1 , 61
A. oxyphyl la 61
Alstonia spp. 46, 165
A. constricta 165
A. scholaris 165

Althaea, A. officinalis 13, 34, 35, 158, 165
A. rosea 165, 221
Amanita muscaria 18, 187
amaranth 165

Amaranthus, A. caudatus 165
A. grandiforus 165
A. hypochondriacus 165
amarogentin 99
American angelica 63
American Botanical Council 5 I
American boxwood 196
American chestnut 184
American cranesbill 120, 216
American ginseng I 18, 243—44
American hellebore 281
American mandrake 252
American pennyroyal 235
American spikenard 170
American storax 229
American valerian 199-200
American white ash 213
Ammi, A. majus 62, 166
A. visnaga syn. Daucus visnaga 13, 15, 19,
44, 47, 62
ammoniacum 203
Anacardium occidentale 166
Anacyclus pyrethrum 45, 166
anemia 301
anesthetic herbs I I
Anagallis arvensis 166-67
analgesic herbs I 1, 13, 21,86, 96, 97, 103,
I 14, 122, 155
Anamirta cocculus 167
Ananas comosus 53, 167
andrographis 167
Andrographis paniculata 167
Anemarrhena asphodeloides 168
Anemone, A. nemorosa 168
A. pratensis 168

A. pulsatilla syn. Pulsatilla vulgaris 35, 168
Anethum graveolens syn. Peucedanum
graveolens 168
angelica 33, 63, 168-69
Angelica, A. archangelica 33, 63, 168-69
A. atropurpurea 63

A. dahurica 169

A. sinensis syn. A. polymorpha 41,42, 63,
68, I 17, 124
angostura 214
angular Solomon’s seal 253
anise 53, 223, 248-49
annatto 179
Annona squamosa 169
annual nettle 146
Anthemis, A. cotula 169
A. nobilis see Chamaemelum nobile
anthraquinones 15, 126
Anthriscus cerefolium 169-70
anti-inflammatory herbs 13,51
antibiotic herbs 13, 28, 85
antiseptic herbs 12, 13, 97, I 12, 122
see also aseptic dressing
antispasmodic herbs 13,97, I 14, 135, 150
anxiety, chronic 308
Aphanes arvensis 170
aphrodisiacs 57, 97, I 15, I 18, 122, 144
Apium graveolens 15, 64
A. graveolens var. rapaceum 64
appetite, loss of 306
apricot 15, 257
Apuleius 194

Arab medicine see Islamic medicine
Arabian jasmine 224
Aralia, A. chinensis 170
A. cordata 170
A. nudicaulis 170
A. racemosa 170
arborvitae 276
Arbutus unedo 170

Arctium, A. lappa 12, 13, 20, 65 , 177, 264
A. minus 65
A. tomentosum 65

Arctostaphylus uva-ursi 71, 144, 147, 170 ,
212, 281

Areca catechu 250
areca nut 250
Arenaria, A. peploides 171
A. rubra 170-71
Argemone, A. glauca 171
A. mexicana 1 7 1
Arisaema spp. 171
A. triphyllum 1 7 1
Aristolochia clematitis 1 7 1
Aristotle 18, 32
arjun 142

Armoracia rusticana syn. Colchlearia
armoracia 171-72
arnica 35, 172
Arnica, A. fulgens 172
A. montana 35, 172
arquitecta 53

arrow poisons 22, 160, 189
arrowroot 52, 233
Artemisia, A. abrotanum 66, 67, 172
A. absinthium 13, 16 , 66 , 67, 172
A. annua 10, 43, 66, 67
A. anomala 66
A. apiacea 67
A. capillaris 66, 67, 172
A cina 66, 67, 172-73
A. dracunculus 66, 67, 173
A. vulgaris 66, 67, 173
artemisinin 67
arteriosclerosis 301

arthritis, with acid indigestion/peptic ulcer 313
inflamed joints 3 13
old age 3 19
artichoke 13, 137, 199
asafoetida 38, 203,210-1 I
Asclepias, A. incarnata 174

A. syriaca 174
A. tuberosa 49, 173-74
aseptic dressing 28

ash 213

ashwagandha 38, 152
Asian plum 257
asiaticocide 76
asmatica 279
Aspalanthus linearis 174
asparagus 174
Asparagus, A. offcinalis 174

A. racemosus 174

Asperula odorata syn. Galium odoratum

174-75

Aspidium flix-mas see Dryopteros
filix-mas

Aspidosperma, A. excelsum 175
A. quebracho-bianco 175
aspirin 26, 98, 129

asthma, mild 301

asthma plant 209
astragalus 68

Astragalus membranaceus 68
astringent herbs, action of 13
athlete’s foot 304
Atlas cedar 185
Atractylodes macrocephala 175
Atropa belladonna 16, 35, 69
aubergine 69, 270-71
Australian medicine 46^47
Australian quinine I 65
Australian wattle 46, 159
Avena sativa I 1-12, 13, 175
avens 21 6
Avicenna 21, 33, 89
avocado 50, 121
ayahuasca 18, 53, 176
Ayurvedic medicine 21,22, 24, 29, 36-39
chakras 37, 38
doshas 37-38
five elements 37
life force 24
practitioners 38, 39
prana 38

preparations and treatments 38-39
Western influence 27
Azadirachta indica 70 , 161
Aztec and Mayan cultures 21,26, 48

B

ba ji tian 237

ba jiao hui xian (star anise) 222-23
babul 159

bacc (sweet flag) 57
Bach Flower Remedies 230
back pain/backache 313,317
Bacopa monnieri 175
Badianus Manuscript (Martin de la Cruz)
48, 161

bael 18, 19, 161

bai guo (ginkgo) 100

bai shao yao (white peony) I 17

bai tou weng (Chinese anemone) 259

bai zhi 169

bai zhu 175

Baical skullcap 40, 42, 134 , 135, 175

balloon vine 37, 183

Ballota nigra 176

balm of Gilead 254-55

balmony 188

balsam fir 158

Bambusa, B. arundiaceae 176

B. brevifora 176

ban bian Han (Chinese lobelia) I 10

323

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GENERAL INDEX

GENERAL INDEX

324

banana 238

8 anisteriopsis caapi 18, 53, 176
banyan tree 21 I
Baptisia tinctoria 176-77
barberry 177-78
“barefoot doctors” 29
barley 220-2 1

Barosma, B. betulina syn. Agathosma
betulina 13,26,44,71,281
8. crenuloto 1 1
8. serratifolia 71
barun (varuna) 88
basil 241

baths & skin washes 297
bay laurel 226 - 27 , 286
bayberry 238
bearberry 147, 170 , 281
bear’s breeches 159
bearsfoot 254

Beech, Dr. Wooster 50, 158, 165
beleric myrobalan 142,275
belladonna 69
Bengal kino 180
Bengal quince 161
Benincoso hispida syn. 8. cerifa 177
benzoin gum 273
Berberis, 8. aquifolium syn. Mahonia
aquifolium 177
8. vulgaris 177-78
bergamot 191
Beta vulgaris 178
betel 122,250
bet h root 278
betony 272

Betula, 8. pendula syn. 8. verrucosa 178
8. utilis 178

bian xu (knotgrass) 253
Bidens tripartita 178

Bignonia catalpa syn. Catalpa bignonioides 179
bilberry 147

biomedicine I 1,26, 27, 28

birthwort 171

bishop’s weed 62, 166

bistort 13, 124,253-54

bites, minor 303

bitter aloes 60

bitter herbs, action of 13

bitter melon 236

bitter orange 190-9 1

bitters 16

bittersweet 270

Bixa orellana 179

black bamboo 176

black bryony 180

black catechu 14, 158-59

black cohosh 13, 17, 5 I, 79 , 106, 186

black cumin 240

black haw 150, 28 1

black horehound 176

black mulberry 238

black pepper 116, 180

black root 228

black walnut 224

black willow 129

blackberry 15, 34, 264

blackcurrant 262

bladder infections see urinary infections
bladderwort 161
bladderwrack 213
bloating 306, 307
blood clotting 12, 100
blood pressure, high 301
during pregnancy 3 17
in old age 3 19
blood tonics 63, I I I

bloodletting 24
blood root 266
blue cohosh 50, 185
blue flag 223
blue gum 96
blue toadflax 227
blue vervain 149
blueberry 147
bo he 234-35
bog myrtle 238-39
bogbean 235
boils 305
boldo 52, 246
boneset 208
borage 179, 204
Borago officinalis 179, 204
boswellia 179
Boswellia, 8. sacra 179

B. serrata 179
bottlebrush 205

brahmi (water hyssop) 175

Brassica oleracea 16, 180

Brazilian ginseng 246

breast tenderness, menstrual 3 15

breathing difficulty & tight chest 301

Brickell, John 184

broad-leaved paperbark tree I 12

bronchial asthma 301

bronchitis see coughs & bronchitis

broom 200

bruises 304

Bryonia, 8. alba 180

8. dioica syn. 8. cretica subsp. dioica 180
bu gu zhi 258
buchu 13,26,44,71,281
buckwheat 14, 210
bugle 163
bugleweed 231
bupleurum 13, 20, 72
Bupleurum chinense syn. 8.
scorzoneraefolium 20, 72
bur marigold 178
burdock 12, 13,20,65, 177,264
burning bush 202
burns, minor 303
bush basil 241
bushy lippia 228
butcher’s broom 265
Butea monosperma 180
butter tree 231
butternut 50, 224
butterwort 249
buying herbs 17, 286

C

cabbage 16, 180
cacao 276

Caesalpina, C. bahamensis 181

C. bonduc 180-81

C. pulcherrima 181

cajuput I 12, 234
calamint 181,267

Calamintha ascendens syn. C. sylvatica,

C. officinalis 181,267
calamus 57

calendula 13, 17,32,73, 123,286,290
Calendula, C. arvense 73

C. officinalis 13, 17,32,73, 123,286
California poppy 50, 207
Calluna vulgaris 181
calomel (metallic purgative) 24
calumba 44, 224

Camellia sinensis syn. Thea sinensis I 1,39,
81, 181,215, 224

camphor 190

Canada balsam see balsam fir
Canadian fleabane 47, 194-95
Canadian goldenrod 271
Cananga odorata syn. Canangium
odoratum 182
candidiasis 3 14
canella 182

Canella winterana syn. C. alba 182
Cannabis sativa 21, 104, 182
cao dou cou (galangal) 61
Cape aloes 60
Cape gooseberry 247
caper 182-83

Capparis, C. cynophallophora 183
C. spinosa 182 - 83 , 267
capsaicin 74

Capsella bursa-pastoris syn. Thlaspi
bursa-pastoris 183
Capsicum, C. annuum 74
C. frutescens 13, 27, 38, 49, 5 1, 74 , I 10
capsules 292, 299
caraway 184

Carbenia benedicta see Cnicus benedictus
cardamom 13, 22, 38, 93
cardiac glycosides 15, 26, 201
cardiac tonic 142
cardinal lobelia 49
Cardiospermum spp. 37, 183
Carduus, C. benedictus see Cnicus
benedictus

C. marianus see Silybum marianum
Caribbean medicine 48-49
Carica papaya I 1 , 183
carminative herbs, action of 13
carob 186
carragheen 189
carrot 16, 64, 201
Carthamus tinctorius 42, 184
Carum carvi 184
cascara sagrada 262
cashew 166
cassava 232-33
cassia 81

Cassia, C. angustifolia 75
C. obtusifolia 75

C. senna syn. Senna alexandrina 13, 15,
22, 30, 45, 75
Castanea, C. dentata 184
C. sativa 184

castor oil plant 19, 36, 262-63
catalpa 179

Catalpa bignonioides see Bignonia catalpa

catha 185

Catha edulis 185

catnip 239-40

cat’s claw 280

cattail 279

Catton, Christopher 89
Caulophyllum thalictroides 50, 185
cautions about using herbs and herbal
preparations 55, 290, 298
cayenne 13,27,38,49,50,51,74, I 10
cedar 185

Cedar of Lebanon 1 85
Cedrus spp. 185
C. atlantica 185
C. libani 185
celeriac 64
celery 15, 64
Celtis australis 1 85
Centaurea, C. cyanus 185-86
C. scabiosa 186
centaury 206

Centella asiatica syn. Hydrocotyle asiatica

19, 47, 78

Central American medicine 21,48
century plant I 61
Cephaelis ipecacuanha 52, 1 86
Ceratonia siliqua 1 86
Cetraria islandica 1 86
Ceylon leadwort 251
chaff flower 159
chai hu (bupleurum) 72
chakras (Ayurvedic medicine) 37, 38
Chamaelirium lutea 51,186-87
Chamaemelum nobile syn. Anthemis nobilis
77, 187

Chamaenerion angustifolia syn. Epilobium
angustifolium 187

Chamomilla recutita syn. Matricaria recutita
14, 35,77, 187,286,291
chandan 266
chaparral 226

Charaka Samhita (Indian treatise) 19, 36,

161,21 1,261
chaste tree 13, 33, 151
che qian cao 251
che qian zi (psyllium) 123
chebulic myrobalan 142,275-76
Cheiranthus cheiri 1 87
Chelidonium majus 1 87-88
Chelone glabra 188

chemical constituents of plants 10-1 1, 12,
14-16, 17,31

Chenopodium, C. ambrosioides 188
C. bonus-henricus 188
C. rhadinostachyum 188
chervil 169-70

chest coughs & bronchitis 3 10

chicalote 171

chicken pox 304
chickweed 272-73, 289
chicory 189-90
chilblains 302
childbirth 3 17

children see infants & children
Chimaphila umbellata 188
Chinese aconite 160
Chinese anemone 259
Chinese figwort 125
“Chinese foxglove” (rehmannia) 125
Chinese goldthread 195
Chinese lobelia I 10

Chinese medicine 21, 36-37, 40-43, 47
choice of herbs 42

cold-induced illness and febrile illness 27
decoctions 291

development of medical systems 20
diagnosis and treatment 41 -42
early texts 19-20
five elements 40—41
formulas 42

holistic approach to treatment 29
key theories 40-41
life force 24

traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) 29,
40

Western influences 27
yin and yang 40-42, 43
Chinese peony I 17, 243
Chinese rhubarb I I, 15,42, 126,

177, 264

Chinese sage 130
Chinese wolfberry I I I
Chionanthus virginicus 13, 188-89
chirayata 273-74
chiretta 16, 39,273-74
chiropractic 27, 5 I
cholagogue herbs, action of 13

Chondrodendron tomentosum I 1,52, 189
Chondrus crispus 189
chou wu tong 40, 191
chronic infections in old age 3 19
Chrysanthemum, C. indicum 78
C. x morifolium 13, 43, 78, 235, 256
chuan jiao 153
chuan xiong 42, I 17, 228
chufa 199

chun pi (tree of heaven) 162
Chyawan, Muni 204
Cichorium, C. endiva 190
C. intybus 189-90
cilantro 195-96
Cimicufuga, C. dahurica 79
C. foetida 79

C. racemosa syn. Actaea racemosa 13, 17,
51,79, 106, 186
cinchona 13, 23, 52, 80
Cinchona spp. II, 13, 23, 52, 80
C. calisaya 80
C. ledgeriana 80
C. officinalis 80

Cinnamomum, C. camphora syn. Laurus
camphora 190
C. cassia 41,81
C. verum 8 I

C. zeylanicum 22, 27, 38, 81
cinnamon 22, 27, 38, 81
circulation, effect of herbs 12, 13
circulatory problems 301,302, 3 19
Citrullus, C. colocynthoides 190
C. colocynthus 190
C. lanata 190
C. vulgaris 190

Citrus, C. aurantii folia 177, 191,250
C. aurantium 190-91
C. bergamia syn. C. aurantium var.
bergamia 191

C.limon I I, 14,38,82, 191
C. reticulata 124
clary sage 131,265
Claviceps purpurea 2 17
cleansing herbs see detoxifying herbs
cleavers 214

Clerodendrum, C. serratum 19 I
C. trichotomum 40, 191
clove 20, 36, 97
club moss 230

Cnicus benedictus syn. Carbenia benedicta,
Carduus benedictus 137, 191
coca 18, 52-53, 206-207
cocaine I 1,28,52, 206-207
Cochlearia, C. armoracia see Armoracia
rusticana

C. officinalis 191-92
cocillana 218
cocoa 276
coconut 192
coconut palm 192
Cocos nucifera 192
codeine, source of 10, 244
codonopsis 40, 61,83
Codonopsis pilosula 40, 61,83
Coffea arabica 44, 192
coffee 44, 192

Cola, C. acuminata 13, 45, 192-93
C. nitida 193
cola nut 192-93
Colchicum autumnale 89, 193

cold extremities 302
cold sores 304
colds 3 I 1,318
see also flu; hay fever
coleus 84

Coleus, C. amboinicus 84
C. forskohlii syn. Plectranthus barbatus 84
colic 3 18
colic root 91, 164
Collinsonia canadensis 193
colocynth 190
coltsfoot 13, 20, 278-79
comfrey 10, 12, 13,35, 138,286,290
Commiphora, C. mol mol syn. C. myrrha 19,
44, 85

C.mukul 85, 193
common buckthorn 262
common dogwood 196
common fleabane 107
common foxglove 26, 35, 194, 20 1 ,

202, 290

common mallow 165, 232
common nasturtium 278
common oak 260
common plantain 123, 251
compresses 296
concentration, failing 3 19
conception, aiding 3 16
condurango 233

congestion, with allergic rhinitis 300
earache and 3 12
infants & children 3 18
sinus congestion and 3 12
Conium maculatum 194, 215
conjunctivitis 3 10
constipation 307, 3 17, 3 18
contraceptive pill, first 9 1
contrayerva 203
convalescence 308, 309, 3 19
Convallaria majalis 31 , 194
Convolvulus jalapa see Ipomoea purga
Conyza, C. canadensis syn. Erigeron
canadensis 47, 194-95
copaiba 195
Copaifera spp. 195
Coptis, C. chinensis 43, 195
C. trifolia 195
coriander 195-96
Coriandrum sativum 195-96
corn 23, 154, 161
corn mint 234-35
cornelian cherry 196
cornflower 185-86
cornsilk 13,23,48,71, 154, 162
cornsmut 154
Cornus, C. forida 1 96
C. mas 196
C. ofpcinalis 196
C. sanguinea 196
corydalis 43, 86, 213
Corydalis, C. cava 86
C. gariana 86
C. yanhusuo 43, 86, 213
Corylus avellana 102
Corynanthe yohimbe see Pausintstalia
yohimbe

cosmetic bark 238
cotton 217-18
couch grass 162, 221
coughs & bronchitis 3 10, 3 18
coumarins 15
cowberry 147
cowslip 15, 35, 256
crack willow 129
cradle cap 3 18
cramp bark 13,33,49, 150
cramps 3 12
cranberry 147, 280-81
Crataegus spp. 87
C. monogyna 87

C. oxyacantha 15, 3 1, 35, 47, 87
Crataeva nurvula 88
creams 296
creosote bush 226
Crithmum maritimum 196
Crocus sativa 89 , 184
Croton spp. 196
C. favens 196
C. lecheri 196
cubeb 122, 250
Cucurbita pepo 197
Culcitium refexum 53
Culpeper, Nicholas 24, 34, 65, 140, 163,
166, 175, 178, 184, 198,204,213,223,
227, 23 1,254, 256, 266, 276-77, 282,
283,336
cumin 197 , 226
Cuminum cyminum 197 , 226
Cupressus sempervirens 197
curare I 1,52, 189

Curcuma, C. longa syn. C. domestica 22, 35,
37,38,51,90, 155, 198
C. zedoaria 1 98
“cure-all” herb (kerala) 48^9
curled dock 264-65
curry tree 238
Cuscuta, C. epilinum 198
C. epithymum 198
C. europaea 198
C. refexa 198
custard apple 169
cutch 158-59
cuts and grazes 304
cyanogenic glycosides 15
Cyanopsis tetragonoloba 1 98
Cydonia oblonga 1 98
Cymbopogon, C. citratus 48, 199, 286
C. densiforus 199
C. martinii 199
C. nardus 199

Cynara scolymus syn. C. cardunculus 13,

137, 199

Cyperus, C. esculentus 199
C. papyrus 199
C. rotundus 199

C. stolonifera 199
cypress 197

Cypripedium pubescens 199-200
cystitis 3 14

Cytisus scoparius syn. Sarothamnus
scoparius 200

D

da huang (Chinese rhubarb) 126
da ji 209

da zao (jujube) 283
dadap (Indian coral tree) 206
dalcini (cinnamon) 81
damiana48, 51, 144
danshen 13,42, 130 , 131
dandelion 16,47, 65, 141,289
danggui (Chinese angelica) 63
dang shen (codonopsis) 83
Daphne mezereum 200
Datura, D. innoxia 201

D. metel 201

D. stramonium 200-201
Daucus, D. carota 16 , 201
D. visnaga see Ammi visnaga
De Materia Medica (Dioscorides) see
Dioscorides

deadly nightshade 16, 35, 69
decoctions 29 1,299
Aboriginal 46

“decoction of the 4 rulers” 175
Native American 49
demulcent herbs, action of 13
depression 308
menopausal 3 16
depurative herbs, action of 13
Descartes, Rene 25
desert tea 95
desmodium 201
Desmodium adscendens 201
detoxifying herbs, action of 12, 13
South American 53

development of herbal medicine 18-53
African medicine 44-45
and the ascendancy of biomedicine I I,
26, 27, 28

Australian and New Zealand medicine
46-47

Central & South American medicine 21,
23, 48, 52-53

Chinese medicine 21,36-37, 40—43
city-based herbalism 34
development of medicinal lore 19
earliest written accounts 19
establishment of medical schools 21,22
in Europe 20-21,22-24, 27, 32-35
first professional body 27
foundation of major herbal traditions 20
herbal synergy 3 I
herbalism outlawed 27, 28, 34, 51
holism 29, 30, 34, 37
Islamic & Indian medicine 21, 36-39
Japanese and Korean medicine 22,
42-^43

medieval folk healing 20-21
modern attitudes to 28-30, 34-35
mystical origins 18
Native American medicine 25-27,
49-50

North American medicine 48-51
pharmaceutical industry and 3 I
scientific rationalism, impact of 25, 34
shamanistic medicine 18-19
trade and trade routes, effects of 20, 21,
22-23, 36, 37, 44
university courses 3 I
women physicians 22
working alongside conventional
medicine 29, 30
devil’s claw 44, 103
devil’s dung 210-1 I
devil’s guts 198
di huang (rehmannia) 125
diagnosis, modern methods 34-35
Dianthus, D. caryophyllus 20 1
D. superbus 20 1
diaper rash 3 18
diaphoretic herbs, action of 13
diarrhea 307
infants & children 3 I 8
Dictamnus albus 202

digestion/digestive organs, effect of herbs
12, 13

digestive disorders 305-307
caused by stress 308
headaches and biliousness with 309
infants & children 3 I 8
infections 305
weak digestion 306
weakened in old age 3 19
see also colic
Digitalis spp. I I
D. lanata 202
D. lutea 202

D. purpurea 15, 26, 35, 194, 202, 290

325

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GENERAL INDEX

GENERAL INDEX

digoxin I I
dill 168

Dioscorea, D. opposita 43, 91

D.villosa 15,49,91, 186
Dioscorides 20, 24, 32, 34, 129, 138, 145,
146, 148, 149, 159, 173, 174, 176, 178,
180, 181, 198, 199,201,214,222,226,
23 1,235, 241,247, 254, 264, 265, 272-
73, 277-78, 279
diosgenin 91
Dipsacus fullonum 203
dittany 202

diuretic herbs, action of 13
South American 53
divination herbs, Native American 49
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Chinese
text) 20, 42, I I 1, 126, 130, 161, 168,
169, 196, 201,212,237, 247,253,259
dizziness 306

Doctrine of Signatures 18, 24, 259
dodder 198
Dodderige, Joseph 50
dog rose 263
dog violet 282

dong quai 41,42, 63, 68, I 17, 124
Dorema ammoniacum 203
Dorstenia, D. contrayerva 203

D. convexa 203

D. klainei 203
dosage 24,31,290
essential information 299
doshas (Ayurvedic medicine) 37-38
Dracaena cinnabari 196
dragon’s blood 196
dried herbs, buying 17
drying at home 289
Drimia maritima see Urginea maritima
Drosera rotundifolia 203
Druidic herbs 18, 149,283
dry coughs 3 10

Dryopteris filix-mas syn. Aspidium filix-mas

202-203

du zhong 208

E

326

earache 3 12, 3 18

East Indian rosebay 205
eastern red cedar 185
Ebers papyrus 19, 44, 62, 168, 196
echinacea 13,27,51,92, 107, 151, 177
Echinacea spp. 13,27,51,92, 107,

151, 177

E. angustifolia 92

E. pallida 92

E. purpurea 92
Echium vulgare 203-204
Ecklonia maxima 44
Eclecticism 27, 50-51
Eclipta prostata syn. E. alba 204
eczema 300

edema during pregnancy 3 17

edible rhubarb 126
eggplant 69, 270-71
elaci (cardamom) 93
elder 15, 18, 34, 132
elderberry 51, 132
elecampane 13,26, 107
Eletteria cardamomum 13, 22, 38, 93
eleuthero 94

Eleutherococcus senticosus 94
elm 20, 145

Elymus repens see Agropyron repens
embelia 204
Embilia ribes 204

Emblica officinalis 3 1, 204
emetic herbs, Native American 5 I
emmenagogue herbs, action of 13
emollient herbs, effects of 13
endive 190

endocrine system, effect of herbs 12, 13
English ivy 219

English Physitian, The (Culpeper) see
Culpeper, Nicholas
Entada phaseoloides 205
ephedra 10, I I, 18,31,42,95
Ephedra sinica 10, II, 18, 42, 95
ephedrine I 1,95

Epilobium angustifolium see Chamaenerion
angustifolia

Equisetum arvense 13, 16, 136,205
ergot 217

Erigeron, E. affnis 195

E. canadensis see Conyza canadensis syn.
Erigeron canadensis

E. philadelphicus 195
Eriodictyon californicum 205
Ervatamia coronaria 205
Eryngium maritimum 206
eryngo 206

Erythraea centaurium 206
Erythrina variegata 206
Erythronium americanum 206
Erythroxylum coca I 1, 18,28,52-53, 206-207
Eschscholzia californica 50, 207
essential oils 297, 299
essiac (anticancer remedy) 264
estrogen levels, menopausal 3 I 6
eucalyptus 46, 47, 96, 207
Eucalyptus, E. camaldulensis 47

E. globulus 46, 47, 96

E. smithii 96, 207
eucommia bark 207-208
Eucommia ulmoides 207-208
Eugenia caryophyllata syn. Syzgium
aromaticum 20, 36, 97
Euonymus atropurpureus 208
Eupatorium, E. cannabinum 208

E. maculatum 209

E. occidentale 208

E. perfoliatum 208

E. purpureum 48, 209

E. teucrifolium 208
Euphorbia, E. atoto 209

E. hirta, syn. E. pilulifera 209

E. kansui 209
E. land folia 209
E. macu lata 209
E. pekinensis 209
Euphrasia spp. 179, 209-10
European angelica 63
European hazel 102
European herbal medicine 32-35
bans on 27, 28, 34
Dark Ages 21

four humors theory 32, 33
influence in South America 53
medical schools 22
medieval folk healing 20-21
modern practitioners 34-35
popular herbs 35

scientific medicine’s break away from 23,
25, 34

use of native medicines 26-27
European leadwort 25 I
European nettle tree 185
European skullcap 135
Euterpe oleracea 210
Evelyn, John I 13
evening primrose 5 1,241

oil 30, 179
evodia 210
Evodia rutaecarpa 210
expectorant herbs, action of 13
eye problems 3 10
eye tonic 21,48, 147
eyebright 179, 209-10

F

Fagopyrum, F. cymosum 210

F. dibotrys 2 10

F. esculentum 14, 210
“false fire’’ tonic 83
false hellebore 160
false unicorn root 186-87
fennel 177, 197,212,223
fenugreek 277-78
Feronia limonia 2 10
fertility problems 3 16
Ferula, F. assa-foetida 38, 203, 210-1 I

F. gummosa syn. F. galbaniflua 203, 21 I

F. jaeshkeana 2 1 I

F. persica 2 1 I

F. silphion 2 1 I

F. sumbul 2 1 I
fever bark 46, 165
feverfew 33, 35, 78, 140, 286, 291
fevers 3 I I

Ficus, F. benghalensis 2 1 I

F.carica 211-12, 222

F. cotinifolia 2 12

F. indica 2 12

F.lacor 212

F. racemosa 2 12
F religiosa 2 12
F retusa 2 12
fig 21 1-12, 222
figwort 268

Filipendula ulmaria 35, 98
first aid see bites, minor; cuts and grazes;
nosebleeds; sprains
first aid kit 290

“5-flavored herb” (schisandra) 133

flame of the forest 180

flavonoids 14

flax dodder 198

flaxseed 16, 109

flea seed 123

Fleming, Alexander 28

florists’ chrysanthemum 78

flu 3 I I

fluid retention, during pregnancy see
edema

menstrual 3 15
fly agaric 18, 187
foti 41,43, 124

Foeniculum vulgare 177, 197, 212, 223
food plants 11-12, 23,35
forskolin 84
Forsythia suspensa 2 12
four humors, theory of 20, 32, 33
“Four Things Soup” 42, I 17
foxglove 15, 26, 35, 194, 202, 290
fractures 3 12
Fragaria vesca 212-13
Frangula alnus see Rhamnus frangula
frankincense 179
Fraxinus, F. americana 2 13

F. excelsior 2 13
F ornus 2 13
French bean 246^7
fringe tree 13, 188-89
fringed pink 201
Fritillaria thunbergii 43

fruit & berries, harvesting & processing 289

fu ling 40, 61

Fucus vesiculosis 1 6, 213

Fumaria, F. offcinalis 86, 213

F. parviflora 2 13
fumitory 86, 213
fungal infections 3 14

skin 304

G

galangal 22,41,61

galbanum 203, 21 I

Galega officinalis 2 14

Galen 20, 21,32, 33, 181

Galipea offcinalis syn. G. cusparia 2 14

Galium, G. aparine 2 14

G. elatum 2 15

G. odoratum see Asperula odorata

G. orizabense 2 14

G. umbrosum 2 14

G. verum 214-15
gan cao 20, 101
gao ben 228
gao Hang (galangal) 61
garden lettuce 226
garden thyme 143
gardenia 2 15

Gardenia, G. campanulata 2 15

G. gummifera 2 15

G.jasminoides syn. G. augusta, G. forida

215

G. taitensis 2 15

G. thunbergia 2 15
gargles 297

garlic 13, 19,23,28,36,49,51,59,

164, 287

gas 306

infants & children 3 18
Gaultheria procumbens 14, 215
ge gen 258-59
Gelidium, G. amansii 2 15

G. cartilagineum 2 15
gelsemium 216

Gelsemium sempervirens 13,216
gentian 99, 288
Gentiana, G. lutea 99, 288

G. macrophylla 99

G. scabra 99

Geranium, G. maculatum 120, 216

G. robertianum 120, 216
Gerard, John 34, 98, 137, 162, 164, 175,
187, 196, 205,226,257,271
germ theory of disease 30
German chamomile 14, 35, 77, 187,

286, 291

Geum urbanum 2 16
gillyflower 201

ginger 13,22,38, 39,61,81, I 16, 155,

287, 298

ginkgo I 1,31,35,41,87, 100
Ginkgo biloba I 1,3 I, 35, 41,87, 100
ginseng 21,27, 40, 42, 43, 68, 83, I 18,

124, 127, 243

adaptogenic properties 12, 13
gipsywort 23 I
glasswort 196

Glechoma hederacea syn. Nepeta glechoma

216-17

glucosilinates 16
Glycine max 38,217

Glycyrrhiza, G. glabra 15, 36, 72, 101, I 17,
136, 226

G. uralensis 20, 101
Gnaphalium, G. keriense 2 17

G. polycephalum 217

G. uliginosum 2 17
goat’s rue 214
goji berry 42, I I I
gokulakanta 221
golden root 127
goldenrod 32, 271
goldenseal 27,49,51, 105, 178
goldthread 195

Gonolobus condurango see Marsdenia
condurango
good King Henry 188
goose grass 213-14
gorse 198

Gossypium, G. herbaceum 217-18

G. hirsutum 218
gotu kola 19, 47, 76
gou teng 280

gout 3 13

grains of paradise 45
grape jasmine 205
grape vine 15, 81, 283
gravel root 48, 209
great lobelia I 10
greater burnet 266
greater celandine 187-88
greater dodder 198
greater galangal 61
greater knapweed 186
greater periwinkle 282
green chiretta 167
green tangerine 124
Grieve, Mrs. (herbalist) 163, 167, 172,
243, 246-47

Grindelia, G. camporum syn. G. robusta
var. rigida 209, 218
G. squarrosa 218
ground ivy 216-17
ground pine 163
growing medicinal plants 286-87
propagation 287
Guaiacum, G. coulteri 218
G. officinale 23,218
G sanctum 218
guapi bark 218
guar gum 198
guarana 53, 245
Guarea, G. guara 2 18
G rusbyi syn. G. guidonia 218
guayacan 218
guelder rose 150
guggul 85, 193
gui zhi 41
gully gum 207
gum problems 306
gumplant 209, 218
gurmar 218-19
gymnema2l8-l9
Gymnema sylvestre 218-19
gynecological problems see fertility
problems; menopausal problems;
reproductive & menstrual problems

H

hemorrhoids 302, 3 17
Hahnemann, Samuel 80
hai zao 267
haldi (turmeric) 90
hallucinogenic herbs 115, 130
Native American 49
shamanistic 18-19
South American 18, 53
Hamamelis virginiana 13,50, 102
hangover 309

hare’s ear root 72
haricot bean 246-^47
harmala 245
“harmony” herbs 71
haronga 219

Haronga madagascariensis 218
Harpagophytum procumbens 44, 103
hartstongue 268
harvesting herbs 288
Harvey, William 25
hawthorn 15,31,35,47,87
hay fever 300
he shou wu 124
headaches 309
biliousness and 309
during pregnancy 3 17
infants & children 3 I 8
nausea with 306
sinus 3 12
stress-related 308
see also migraine
heart, effect of herbs 13
see also circulation; circulatory problems
heartburn 3 17
heartsease 35, 281-82
heather 181

Hedeoma pulegoides 235
Hedera helix 219

hei zhi ma (sesame) 269-70
Helen of Troy 107
Helianthus annuus 49, 107
Helleborus niger 2 18
hellweed 198
helonias 51, 186-87
hemlock 194,215
hemlock spruce 278
hemp agrimony 208
henbane 69, 221-22
henna 227

hepatic herbs, action of 13
herb gardens 286-87
herb robert 120, 216
herba benedicta (avens) 216
herba militaris (yarrow) 56
herbal medicine, benefits of 10
development of 18-53
outlawed 27, 28, 34, 5 I
herbal practitioners 336
professional training 336
herbal remedies/treatments, making
290-97

baths & skin washes 297
capsules & powders 292
compresses & lotions 296
creams 296
decoctions 291
equipment 290
essential oils 297
gargles & mouthwashes 297
infused oils 294
infusions 29 I
juices 297
macerations 297
ointments 295

pessaries & suppositories 297
poultices 295
safety 55, 290, 298
side effects 10, 298
steam inhalations 297
storage 290
syrups 293
tinctures 292, 293
tonic wines 293
weights & measures 290
herbal wines 293

Herball, The (Gerard) see Gerard, John

herbals 20, 22, 24, 33-34

herbe au dragon (tarragon) 173

Herniaria glabra 171,219

hibiscus 219-20

Hibiscus sabdariffa 2 19-20

hiccups 307

Hieracium pilosella syn. Pilosella officinarum

220

hijiki 267

Hildegard of Bingen 22, 61, 185, 266, 275
Himalayan silver birch 178
Hindu sacred plants 18
Hippocrates 19, 20, 21,24, 25, 32, 277
Hippophae rhamnoides 16, 220
holism 29, 30, 34, 37

see also Ayurvedic medicine
hollyhock 165,221
holy basil 37, I 16, 286
holy thistle 137, 191
holy weed (yerba santa) 205
homeopathy 80
homeostasis 12
honeysuckle 229-30
hong hua (safflower) 42, 183
hoodia 220
Hoodia, H. currori 44

H. gordonii 220
hops 16,33, 104
Hordeum vulgare 220-21
hormonally active herbs, action of 13
horse chestnut 15, 58
horsemint 236
horseradish 171-72
horsetail 13, 16, 136,205
hot flashes 3 16
hou po 40, 232
houseleek 269
huai niu xi (chaff flower) 159
huang bai 247
huang Han 43, 195
huang qi (astragalus) 68
huang quin (Baical skullcap) 134
Humulus lupulus 16, 33, 104
Hungarian pepper 74
huo ma ren (marijuana) I 82
huo xiang 42, 161
Hydrangea aborescens 22 1
Hydrastis canadensis 27, 47, 49, 5 I,

105, 178

Hydrocotyle vulgaris 76
Hygrophila, H. guayensis 22 1

H. spinosa 22 1

Hyoscyamus, H. muticus 222

H. niger 69, 221-22
hyperactivity 308

Hypericum perforatum 30, 3 1,32, 5 1,79,

106, 286, 298
hyssop 33, 222
Hyssopus officinalis 33, 222

Ibn Cordoba 21
I bn El Beitar 44
iboga 44^45
Iceland moss 186
Ilex, I. guayusa 222

I. paraguariensis syn. I. paraguensis 222
lllicium verum 222-23
immune system, effect of herbs 12, 13
Imperatoria ostruthium syn. Peucedanum
ostruthium 223

impotence & premature ejaculation 3 16

Inca wheat 165

Indian asparagus 174
Indian berry 167
Indian borage 84
Indian coral tree 206
Indian corn 154
“Indian ginseng” (withania) 152
Indian gooseberry 3 1, 204
Indian lobelia 279
Indian mallow 158
Indian medicine 19, 20, 21, 36-39
see also Ayurvedic medicine
Indian mulberry 237
Indian olibanum 179
Indian pennywort 76
Indian snakeroot 261
Indian tobacco I 10
Indian turnip 171
indigestion 307
infants & children 299, 3 18
influenza see flu
infused oils 294
infusions 291,299
inhalations see steam inhalations
insecticides/insect repellents 66, 70,
97, 108

insomnia 309, 3 13, 317,318
intoxicant herbs, African 45
Inula, I. helenium 13, 26, 107
l.japonica 107
inulin 26
ipecac 52, 186
Ipomeoea, I. batatas 223

I. pandurata 49

I. purga syn. Gonvolvulus jalapa 223
I. turpethum 223

I. violacea 223
Iris versicolor 223
Irish moss 189

irritable bowel syndrome 307

Islamic medicine (Unani Tibb) 21,33,
36-37, 39

ispaghula (psyllium) 123

ivy 219

j

Jack-in-the-pulpit 171
jalap 223

Jamaica dogwood 25 1
jambul 274
Japanese gentian 99
Japanese medicine 22, 42-43
jasmine 224

Jasminum, J. grandiforum 224

J. officinale 4 1

J. sambac 224

Jateorhiza palmata 44, 224
java tea 243
jequirity 38, 158
ji xue teng 235
jiang huang (turmeric) 90
jin qian cao 23 I
jin yin hua 78, 229-30
jing jie 40, 268
Joe Pye weed 209
joint pain & stiffness 3 13
juhua 13,43,78, 229, 256
jue ming zi 75
JuglansJ. cinerea 50, 224

J. nigra 224
J. regia 224
juices 297
jujube 283

juniper 20,71,224-25

Juniperus, J. communis 20, 71, 224-25

327

www.ebook3000.com

GENERAL INDEX

GENERAL INDEX

J. oxycedrus 225

J. rigida 225
J. sabina 225

J. virginicus 185

K

kompoh see Japanese medicine

kanghi 158

kanna 44-45

kava46, 122

kava kava 122

kelp 16,213

K’Eogh 169, 174, 187, 203, 206, 214, 220,
252, 264

kerala 48-49, 236
khat 185
khellin 62
kigelia 45, 225

Kigelia pinnata syn. K. africana 45, 225

kino 46, 258

kiratatiktah 167

knitbone 137

knotgrass 124, 253

kola nut 13,45, 192-93

Korean medicine 42-43

Korean mint 161

Krameria, K. cystisoides 225

K. parvifolio 225

K. triandra 225

kudzu 258-59
kumarhou 254
kuth 267-68

L

328

Lactuco, L. sativa 226
L. viroso 225-26
lady’s bedstraw 214-15
lady’s mantle 163-64, 286
lady’s slipper 199-200
Lomium album 226
lapacho 13, 139
larch 226

Larix decidua syn. L. europaea 226
Larrea, L. divaricata 226

L. tridentata 226

Laurus, L. camphora see Cinnamomum
camphora

L. nobilis 226-27, 286
Lavandula, L. angustifolia syn. L. officinalis
35, 108,286

L. spica 108
L. stoechas 108
lavender 35, 108, 286
Lawsonia inermis syn. L. alba 227
laxative herbs, action of I 1, 13
lemon I I, 14, 16,38,82, 191
lemon balm 13, 113, 286
lemon grass 48, 198-99, 286
lemon verbena 52, 151, 228-29
Leonurus, L. cardiaca HI
L. heterophyllus 227
L. sibiricus 227
Lepidium, L. meyenii 228
L. virginicum 227-28
Leptandra virginica syn. Veronicastrum
virginicum 228
lesser celandine 260-61
lesser periwinkle 282
lesser skullcap 135
Levant storax 229
Levant wormwood 172-73
Levisticum officinale syn. Ligusticum
levisticum 228

Han qiao 2 12
life root 269
lignum vitae 23, 218
Ligusticum, L. chuanxiong 228
L. levisticum see Levisticum officinale
L. sinense 228
L. wallachii 42, 117
lily of the valley 31, 194
lime (Citrus aurantiifolia) 177, 191,250
lime (Tilia spp.) 277
Lind, James 25
linden Til
ling 180

Linnaeus, Carolus 200, 270, HI
linseed 16, 18, 109
Linum, L. catharticum 109
L. usitatissimum 16, 18, 109
lippia 227

Lippia, L. adoensis 229
L. alba 228

L. citriodora syn. Aloysia triphylla 52, 151,

228-29

L. dulcis 228, 229
Liquidambar, L. orientalis 36, 229
L. styracifua 229

licorice 15,36,72, 101, I 17, 136, 226
Liriosma ovata 258

liver tonics 72, I I I, 124, 125, 133, 137
liver, weakened 3 19

Lobaria pulmonaria 229
lobelia 27, 49, 50, I 10, 150, 209
Lobelia, L. cardinalis 49
L. chinensis I 10
L. infata 27, 49, I 10, 150, 209
L. siphilitica I 10
lomatium 229
Lomatium dissectum 229
“longevity” herb 125
Lonicera spp. 78, 229-30
L. caprifolium 229
L. japonica 229-30
loofah 230

Lophophora williamsii 49, 230
lotions 296, 299
lovage 228
love-in-a-mist 240
lucerne 233-34

Luffa cylindrica syn. L. aegyptica 230
Luma chequen 274
lungwort 18, 259

Lycium chinense syn. L. barbarum 42, I I I
Lycopodium clavatum 230
Lycopus, L. europaeus 23 I
L. virginicus 23 I
Lysimachia, L. christinae 23 I
L. nemorum 23 I
L. vulgaris 231
Lythrum salicaria 231

M

ma bian cao (vervain) 149
ma huang (ephedra) 95
maca 228
mace 37, 115
macerations 297
mad dog 135

Madagascar periwinkle 16, 282
madder 263
Madhuca spp. 231
“magical” herbs, African 44
Native American 49
magnolia 232

Magnolia, A/1, grandif ora 232
A/1, offcinalis 40, 232

maidenhair fern 160
maidenhair tree 100
maize see corn

Majorana hortensis see Origanum majorana
malabar nut 160
male fern 202
Malva sylvestris 165, 232
Mandragora officinarum 33, 180, 232
mandrake 33, 180, 232
Manihot esculenta 232-33
manioc 232-33
manna ash 213
Maori remedies 254
Maranta arundinacea 52, 233
margoas tree (neem) 70
marijuana 21, 104, 182
Marrubium vulgare 233
Marsdenia condurango syn. Gonolobus
condurango 233
marsh cudweed 217
marsh pennywort 76
marshmallow 13,34,35, 158, 165
Mary thistle 137
masterwort 223
mastic tree 251
matchbox bean 205
mate 52, 222
matico 122, 249-50

Matricaria recutita see Chamomilla recutita
Mattiolo, Pierandrea 185, 223, 227, 229
maypop I 19
mayweed 169
meadow anemone 168
meadow saffron 89, 193
meadowsweet 35, 98
Medicago sativa 233-34
medical schools, establishment of 21,22
medicinal plants, active constituents
14-16, 17
cultivation of 35
as food & medicines 11-12
growing 286-87
harvesting & processing 288-89
plant chemicals 10-1 1,26, 28, 3 I
plant names 55
value of whole plants 11,31
see also individual plants
medicine man see shamanistic medicine
medieval folk healing 20-21
Melaleuca, M. alternifolia 13, 14, 26, 46, 47,
I 12

A/I. leucadendron I 12, 234
A/I. linariifolia I 12
A/1, viridiflora I 12, 234
Melia azedarach 70
melilot 15,234

A/leZ/Zotus officinalis syn. A/1, arvensis 15, 234
melissa I 13

MeZ/ssa officinalis 13, 113 , 286
Membryanthemum spp. 44-45
memory failing 3 19
menopausal problems 3 16
menstrual problems 301,315
Mentha, A/1, aquatica I 14

M. arvensis 235
A/1, haplocalyx 234-35
A/I. x piperita 30, I 14, 286
A/I. pulegium 48, 71 , 235
A/I. spicata I 14, 235
Menyanthes trifoliata 235
mercury poisoning 24
mescaline 230
mesquite 48

metabolism, weakened in old age 3 19

metallic poisons 24

Mexican poppy 171
mezereon 200

migraine 309

milfoil 56

milkthistle 34, 72, 137
milk vetch 68
milkwort 252
Milletta reticulata 235
mind-altering remedies, South American 52-53
minerals 16
miner’s lettuce 236-37
mistletoe 13 , 18 , 283
Mitchella repens 235-36
Momordica, A/I. charantia 48-49, 236
A/1, cochinchinensis 236
Monarda, A/1, didyma 236
A/1, punctata 236
monkshood 160
monsonia 236
Monsonia ovata 236
Montia perfoliata 236-37
Moreton Bay chestnut tree 3 I
morinda 237
Morinda, A/1, citrifolia 237
A/1, officinalis 237
morning glory 49, 223
morning sickness 3 17
morphine 10, I 1,26,28,86,244
Morus, A/I. alba 40, 237-38
A/1, nigra 238
motherwort 227
motion sickness 306
mouse-ear hawkweed 220
mouth problems see mouth ulcers;
oral thrush; toothache
mouth ulcers 306
mouthwashes 97, I 12, 122,297
mucilaginous herbs 16
mugwort 173
muira puama 258
mullein 47, 281
Murraya, A/1, koenigii 238
A/1, paniculata 238
Musa spp. 238
muscle aches 31 1,312
muscle tension 308
musculoskeletal problems 312-13
musculoskeletal system, effect of herbs 13
Myddfai, Physicians of 21, 141, 170,
173,200

Myrica, A/1, cerifera 238
A/I. gale 14,238-39
Myristica fragrans 22, 37, I 15
Myroxylon pereirae syn. A/1, balsamum var.
pereirae 239
myrrh 19, 44, 85
myrtle 36, 239
Myrtus communis 36, 239

N

nan wu vvei zi (schisandra) 133
nasturtium 52
Nasturtium officinale 239
National Institute of Medical Herbalists
16, 27,336

Native American medicine 25, 26-27,
49-50

see also Central American medicine;
shamanistic medicine; South American
medicine

Natural History (Pliny the Elder) see Pliny
the Elder
naturopathy 27

nausea & vomiting 306, 3 17

neem 70
neem oil 70, 161
Nepeta, N. catario 239-40

N. glechoma see Glechoma hederacea
Nerium oleander 19
neroli oil (bitter orange oil) 190-91
nerve & stress-related problems 308-
309,319

nervine herbs, action of 13
nervine tonics 57, 106, 131, 135

nervous exhaustion 308-309, 3 19

nervous system, effect of herbs 12, 13

nettle 33, 63, 146

nettle rash 303

neuralgia 308

New Zealand medicine 47

niaouli 234

Nicotiana tabacum 49, 69, I 10, 182, 240
Nigella, N. damascena 240

N. sativa 240
night sweats 3 16
night-blooming cereus 268-69
nikkar nut 180-81
niu bangzi (burdock) 65
noni 237

North American medicine 48-51
see also Native American medicine
northern prickly ash 153
“nosebleed” (yarrow) 56
nosebleeds 3 10
notoginseng 243
Notopteryglum incisium 41,240
notopterygium root 240
nutmeg 22, 37, 115
“nutmeg butter” I I 5
nux vomica 273
Nymphaea, N. alba 240—41

N. lotus 240-41

N. odorata 240

O

oats I 1-12, 13, 175
Ocimum, 0. basilicum I 16, 241

O. basilicum var. minimum 241

0. tenuiflorum syn. 0. sanctum 37,

I 16, 286

Oenothera biennis 30, 5 1, 179, 241
oil of Cade 225
oils, essential 297, 299
infused 294
ointments 295
older adults 3 19
Olea europaea 241 -42
oleander 19
olive 241 —42
omega-3 oils 109
onion I 1,59, 164
Ononis spinosa 242
Operculina turpethum 242
Ophelia chirata see Suvertia chirata
opium poppy 10, 21,26, 28, 46, 47,
244

Opuntia ficus-indica 47, 242

oral thrush 3 14
oregano 242—43
Oregon grape 177

Origanum, 0. majorana syn. Majorana
hortensis 242

0. vulgare 242-43
Orthosiphon aristata 243
osteopathy 27, 51
Oswego tea 236

over-the-counter medicines 17, 35
overactivity, insomnia and 309

nervous exhaustion and 309

P

Pacific yew 3 1,275

Paeonia, P lactiflora syn. P albiflora 42, 117, 243
P officinalis 20, I 17,243
P suffructicosa I 17

pain relief I 1,21,86,96,97, 103, I 14,
122, 155
palas 180
pale catechu 280

palpitations 302

Panax, P ginseng 12, 13, 21,40, 42, 43, 68,
79, 83, 118, 124, 127,243
P notoginseng I 18, 243
P quinquefolium 118, 243-44
panic attacks 302, 308
Papaver, P rhoeas 244
P somniferum 10, I 1,21,26, 28, 46, 244
papaya I 1, 183
paprika 74
papyrus 199
Paracelsus 23-24, 30
pareira52, 189

Parietaria officinalis syn. P diffusa 245
Parkinson, John 108
parsley 246
parsley piert 170
partridge berry 235-36
passiflora I 19
Passiflora, P incarnata I 19
P quadrangularis I 19
passionflower I 19
Pasteur, Louis 28
patchouli 161,252
pau d’arco 53, 139

Paullinia, P cupana syn. P. sorbilis 53, 245
P yoco 245

Pausinystalia yohimbe syn. Corynanthe
yohimbe 245
peepal 212
Peganum harmala 245
pelargonium 120
Pelargonium, P reniforme 120
P sidoides 120
pellitory 45, 166
pellitory-of-the-wall 245
penicillin 28
pennyroyal 48, 71, 235
peony 20, I 17, 243
pepper 122, 250
peppermint 30, I 14, 286
peptic ulcers 35, 3 13
pergularia 246
Pergularia extensa 246
period pain 3 15
Persea am erica na 50, 121
Peruvian balsam 239
Peruvian bark 80
pessaries 297
petha 177

Petroselinum crispum 246
Peucedanum graveolens see Anethum
graveolens

Peumus boldo 52, 246
peyote 49, 230
Pfaffia paniculata 246
Phaseolus vulgaris 246—47
Phellodendron amurense 247
phenols 14

Philadelphia fleabane 195
phu (valerian) 148
phyllanthus 247
Phyllanthus amarus 247

Physalis alkekengi syn. P franchetti 247
Physiomedicalism 27, 50-5 1,221,23 I
Phytolacca americana syn. P. decandra 49,

5 1 ,247-48

phytotherapy 3 I

Picrasma excelsa syn. Picraenia excelsa 248
picrorrhiza 248
Picrorrhiza kurroa 248
pilewort 260-61

“Pill of Eight Ingredients” 125, 196
pill-bearing spurge 209
Pilosella offoconarum see Hieracium pilosella
Pimenta officinalis 248
Pimpinella anisum 53, 248-49
pineapple 53, 167
Pinguicula, P. grandiflora 249
P vulgaris 249
pinkroot 272
Pinus sylvestris 14, 249
Piper, P angustifolia 122, 249-50
Pbetle 122, 250
P cubeba 122, 250
P methysticum 46, 122

P. nigrum I 16, 180, 250
P sanctum 122
Pipinella anisum 223
pipsissewa 188
Piscidia erythrina 251
pistachio nut 251
Pistacia, P lentiscus 251

P. vera 251
pit shirish 163
plague, spread of 23
plant names 55
plant spirits, belief in 18
Plantago spp. 13, 123
P asiatica 123, 25 I
P indica 123
P lanceolata 251

P. major 123, 251
P ovata 123
P psyllium 123
plantain 238

Plasmodium parasite 28, 67
Plectranthus barbatus see Coleus forskohlii
pleurisy root 49, 173-74
Pliny the Elder 32-34, 160, 190, 196,234,
235

Plumbago, P europaea 251
P zeylanica 251

Podophyllum, P hexandrum 252
P peltatum 252
Pogostemon cablin 161, 252
poison ivy 262
pokeweed 49, 51, 247—48
Polo, Marco 22, 190
Polygala, P senega 252
P tenuifolia 252
P vulgaris 252

Polygonatum, P biflorum 253
P. multiflorum 253
P odoratum 253
Polygonum, P aviculare 124, 253
Pbistorta 13, 124, 253-54
P cuspidatum 124
P hydropiper 254
P. multi florum 41,43, 124
Polymnia uvedalia 254
Polypodium vulgare 254
polypody 254
polysaccharides 16
Pomaderris elliptica 254
pomegranate 39, 259-60
populeon see balm of Gilead
Populus, P x candicans syn. P x gileadensis

254-55

P tremuloides 255

Poria cocos syn. Sclerotium cocos 40, 61
Portulaca oleracea 255
P oleracea var. sativa 255
pot infusion 291
pot marigold 73
potato 23, 52, 271,298
Potentilla, P anserina 255-56
P erecta syn. P tormentilla 256
Poterium officinalis see Sanguisorba officinalsi
poultices 52, 145,295
powders 292
prana 24

premenstrual syndrome 3 1 5
pregnancy 299, 3 1 7
prickly ash 48, 153
prickly pear 47, 242
primula 256
Primula veris 15, 35, 256
printing, invention of 24, 33-34
proanthocyanins 15
progesterone levels 3 1 6
prontoalivio 228
Prosopis juliflora 48
Prunella vulgaris 256
Prunus, P. armeniaca 15 , 257
P avium 257
P cerasus 257
P mume 257
P serotina 15, 257-58
Psoralea corylifolia 258
psyllium 13, 123

Pterocarpus marsupium 46, 180, 258
Ptychopetalum olacoides syn. P. uncinatum 258
pu gong ying 141
pu huang 279

Pueraria, P lobata syn. P thunbergiana 258-59
P mirifica 259
P tuberosa 259
Pulicaria dysenterica 107
Pulmonaria officinalis 18 , 259
pulsatilla 35, 168
Pulsatilla, P chinensis 259
P vulgaris see Anemone pulsatilla
pumpkin 197

Punica granatum 39, 259-60
purging 24, 109
purging flax 109
purple coneflower 92
purple foxglove 15, 26, 35, 194, 202
purple loosestrife 23 I
purslane 255
pygeum 45, 260
Pygeum, P. africanum 45, 260
P. gardneri 260

Q

qi (primal energy) 24, 43
qiang huo 240
qin jiao 99
qing hao 67
qu mai 201
quaking aspen 255
quality control 17
quassia 248
quebracho 175
queen of the meadow 98
queen’s delight 273
Quercus robur 14, 260
Quillaja saponaria 53, 260
quince 198

quinine I 1,52, 80, 165
quinoa I 65

329

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GENERAL INDEX

GENERAL INDEX

R

330

radish 16,261
ragwort 19, 298
ramsoms 59, 164
Ranunculus, R. delphinifolius 261
R. ficaria 260-61
Raphanus sativus 16, 261
raspberry 264
Rauvolfia, R. serpentina 261
R. vomitoria 26 1
red beet 178
red bush 174
red clover 14, 277
red poppy 244
red river gum 47
rehmannia 42, 95, I 17, 125
Rehmannia, R. glutinosa 42, 95, I 17,

125

R. lutea 125

“rejuvenator” tonics 76, 124
relaxant herbs, action of 13
ren shen (ginseng) I 18

reproductive and menstrual problems

315-16

respiration/respiratory system, effect of
herbs 12, 13

respiratory tract problems 310-12
Rhamnus, R. carthaticus 262
R. frangula syn. Frangula alnus 261 -62
R. purshiana 262
rhatany 225
Rheum, R. officinale 126
R. palmatum I 1, 15, 42, 126, 177,

264

R. rhaponticum 126
R. tanguticum 126
rheumatism 3 19
rhodiola 127
Rhodiola, R. crenulata 127
R. quadrifida 127
R. rosea 127
Rhus, R. aromatica 262
R. glabra 262
R. toxicodendron 262
Ribes nirgum 262
ribwort plantain 251
Ricinus communis 19, 36, 262-63
Rig Veda (Ayurvedic text) 36
Roman chamomile 77, 187
Roman nettle 146
rooibos 174

roots, rhizomes, tubers, & bulbs,
harvesting & processing 289
Rosa, R. canina 16, 263
R. gallica 263
rose 263

rosebay willowherb 187
rosemary 13, 33, 128, 286
Rosmarinus officinalis 13,33, 128, 286
rou dou kou (nutmeg & mace) I 15
rou gui (cinnamon) 8 I
rowan 271 -72
Rubia tinctorum 263
Rubus, R. fruticosus 15, 34, 264
R. idaeus 264
rue 179,222,265
Rumex, R. acetosa 264
R. acetosella 264
R. crispus 65, 264-65
rupturewort 171,219
Ruscus aculeatus 265
Rush, Dr. Benjamin 24
Ruta, R. chalepensis 265
R. graveolens 179, 222, 265

S

SabaI serrulata see Serenoa repens
safflower 184
saffron 89, 184

sage 22, 23, 34, 130, 131,286,287
saikosides 72

St. John’s wort 30, 3 1,32, 51,79, 106,
286, 298

Salicornia europeae 196
salicylic acid 14,26, 129
Salix, S. acmophylla 129
S.alba 13, 14,26, 129, 140
S. fragilis 129
S. nigra 129
sallaki 179

Salvia, S. divinorum 130
S. lavandulifolia 13 I
S. miltiorrhiza 13, 42, 130, 131
S. officinalis 22,23,34, 130, 131,

286, 287

S. sclarea 131, 265
Sambucus nigra 15, 18, 34, 5 1, 132
samphire 196
son qi I I 8, 243
sand spurrey 170-71
sandalwood 266
sandwort 170-71

sangyebl (white mulberry) 40, 237-38
sangre de drago 196
Sanguinaria canadensis 266
Sanguisorba ofpcinalis syn. Poterium
officinalis 266
sanicle 266
Sanicula europaea 266
Santalum album 266
sap & gel, harvesting & processing 289
Saponaria ofpcinalis 267
saponins 15

Sargassum, S. fusiforme 267
S. pallidum 267

sarpagandha (Indian snakeroot) 261
sarsaparilla 21, 270
Satureja, S. hortensis 267
S. montana 267
Saussurea, S. amara 268
S. lappa syn. S. costus 267-68
savin 225

saw palmetto 48, 51, 1 36, 197
scallion 164

scarlet pimpernel 166-67
scented Solomon’s seal 253
schisandra 40, 133
Schisandra, S. chinensis 40, 133
S. sphenanthera 133
Schizonepeta tenuifolia 40, 268
Sclerotium cocos see Poria cocos
Scolopendrium vulgare 268
Scots pine 14, 249
Scrophularia, S. aquatica 268
S. marylandica 268
S. ningopoensis 268
S. nodosa 268
scurvy 25

scurvy grass 191-92
Scutellaria, S. baicalensis syn. S. macrantha
40,42, 134, 135, 175
S. galericulata 135
S. laterifora 49, 134, 135
S. minor 135
sea beet 178
sea buckthorn 16, 220
sea fennel 198
sea holly 206
seabeach sandwort 171

seaweed 44

see also bladderwrack; help
sedative herbs, action of 13
seeds, collecting 289
Selenicereus grandiporus 268-69
self-heal 256

Sempervivum tectorum 269
Seneca snakeroot 252
Senecio, S. aureus syn. Packera aureus 269
S.jacobaea 19, 269, 298
senna 13, 15,22,30,45,75
Senna alexandrina see Cassia senna
Serenoa, S. adamsonii 136
S.japa 136

S. repens syn. Sabal serrulata 48, 51, 136,
197

sesame 269-70
Sesamum indicum 269-70
sex drive, low 3 I 6
sex hormones 12, 13
shamanistic medicine 18-19, 25
North American 49
South American 53
shan yao 43, 9 I
shan zhu yu 196
shatavari 174
sheep’s sorrel 264
sheng di huang 125
shengjian 155
sheng ma 79
shepherd’s purse 183
shi chang pu 57
shingles 304
shu di huang 125
si gua luo 230
Siamese ginger 61
Siberian ginseng 94
Siddha medicine 36

side effects from herbal treatments 10,
298

silver birch 178
silverweed 255-56

Silybum marianum syn. Carduus marianus
34, 72, 137
silymarin 137
singabera 155

sinus problems 309, 3 12
siristree 163
sisal agave 161

skin health, effects of herbs 12, 13
skin problems 303-305
skin rashes 303, 3 I 8
skullcap 49, 134, 135
skunk cabbage 274
sleep problems see insomnia
slippery elm 16,48,50, 145,264
Smilax spp. 21,270
smooth sumac 262
soap bark 53, 260
soapwort 267
Socotra dragon tree 196
Solanum, S. dulcamara 270
S. insidiosum 2J I
S. melongena 69, 270-71
S. tuberosum 23, 52, 271 , 298
Solidago, S. canadensis 27 1
S. odora 2J I
S. virgaurea 32, 271
Solomon’s seal 252-53
Sorbus aucuparia 27 1 -72
sore nipples 3 15
sore throats 3 I I
sorrel 264

South American medicine 21,52-53
southern prickly ash 153

southernwood 172
soya 38, 217
Spanish sage 13 I
spasmolytic herbs, action of 13
spastic constipation 307
spearmint I 14, 235
speedwell 281
sphagnum moss 28
Spigelia, S. anthelmia 272
S. femmingania 272
S. marilandica 272
spike lavender 108
spiny bamboo 176
spiny restharrow 242
spirits, plant spirits 18
see also “vital spirits”
sprains 3 12
“spring” tonics 137
squaw root 79
squaw vine 235-36
squaw weed 269
squill 280

Stachys ofpcinalis syn. S. betonica 272
star anise 222-23
star grass 164
steam inhalations 297, 299
Stellaria media 272-73, 289
steroid anti-inflammatories 28
Stillingia sylvatica 273
stimulant herbs, action of 13
stings 303

stinking mayweed 169
stomachache 305
stomachic herbs, action of 13
stone root 193
storax 36, 229
storing herbs 288-89
strawberry tree 170
stress I 18, 148, 152,308
in old age 3 19
stretch marks 3 17
strewing herb 98
Strychnos nux-vomica 273
Styrax benzoin 273
su xian hua 41
suan zhoa ren 43
suma 246

summer savory 267
sunburn 303
sundew 203
sunflower 49, 107
suppositories 297
sutherlandia 45
Sutherlandia frutescens 45
sweet basil I 16, 241
sweet cherry 257
sweet chestnut 184
sweet flag 13,39, 57, 298
sweet gale 14, 238-39
sweet marjoram 242
sweet potato 223
sweet sedge 57
sweet sumac 262
sweet violet 282
sweet woodruff 174-75
sweet wormwood 10, 43, 67
sweet-scented goldenrod 271
swellings 303

Swertia chirata 1 6 , 39, 273-74
Symphytum officinale 10, 12, 13,35, 138,
286, 290

Symplocarpus foetidus 274
synergy, herbal 3 I
syphilis 23, 24
syrups 293

Syzygium, S. cumini 274

S. gerrardii 274

T

Tabebuio spp. 139

T. avellanedae 139

T. impetiginosa 53, 139
Tobernonthe iboga 45
tai chi symbol 43
tamarind 274
Tamarindus indico 274
Tamus communis 180

Tonacetum, T. parthenium 33, 78, 140, 286,
291

T.vulgare 78, 140,274-75
Tong Materia Medico 177, 204, 261
tannins 11,14
tansy 78, 140, 274-75
Taraxacum, T. mongolicum 141

T. officinale 16,47, 65, 141,289
tarragon 173
tart cherry 257
taxol 3 I

Taxus, T. baccata 275
T brevifolia 3 1,275
tea 39, 81, 181,215, 222, 224
tea tree 13, 16,26,46,47, 112
teasel 203
teething 3 18
tension 308
during pregnancy 3 17
premenstrual 3 15
sinus headaches and 309
Terminalia, T arjuna 142
Tbelerica 142,275
Tchebula 142, 275-76
thalidomide tragedy 28-29
Thea sinensis see Camellia sinensis
Theobroma cacao 276
Theophrastus 165, 171
Thlaspi bursta-pastoris see Capsella
bursa-pastoris

Thomson, Samuel 27, 50, I 10, 215
thornapple 200-20 1
three-leaved caper 88
thrush 3 14
Thuja occidentalis 276
thyme 3 1, 35, 48, 143, 198, 276-77, 286
thymol 14, 143,276
Thymus, T. serpyllum 143, 276-77

T. vulgaris 31,35, 48, 143, 198, 276, 286
tian nan xing 171
tiger nut 199
T7/o spp. 277
tinctures 292, 293, 299
tinnevelly senna 75
tobacco 49, 69, I 10, 182,240
tongue ulcers 306
tonic herbs, action of 13
tonic wines 293
tonsillitis 3 I I
toothache 308
toothache tree 153
tormentil 256
toxic herbs 19, 22, 55
toxicity in the body, effect of herbs 12
toza 229

trade and trade routes, effects of 20, 21,
22-23, 36, 37, 44
trailing eclipta 204
tree of heaven 162-63
tree lungwort 229
Trifolium pratense 14, 277
Trigonella foenum-graecum 277-7 8

Trillium erectum 278
Tropaeolum majus 52, 278
tropane alkaloids 69
Trotula (woman physician) 22
trout lily 206
true unicorn root 164
Tsuga canadensis 278
tulsi (holy basil) I 16

turmeric 22, 35, 37, 38, 51,90, 155, 198
Turnera, T. diffusa syn. 7 diffusa var.
aphrodisiaca 48, 51, 144
T opifera 144
T ulmifolia 144
turpeth 242

Tussilago farfara 13, 20, 278-79
Tylophora asmatica 279
Typha angustifolia 279

U

ulcers see mouth ulcers; peptic ulcers
Ulex europaeus 198
Ul m us, U. am erica no 145

U. carpinifolia 20

U. rubra 16,48,50, 145, 264
umckaloabo 120
una de gato 280
Unani Tibb see Islamic medicine
Uncaria, U. gambier 280

U. rhynchophylla 280

U. tomentosa 280

Urginea maritima syn. Drimia maritima 280
urinary infections 3 14
during pregnancy 3 17
urinary system, effect of herbs 13
Urtica, U. dioica 33, 63, 146
U. pilulifera 146

U. urens 146
urticaria 303
Ustilagozeae 154
Utricularia spp. 161
uva-ursi 71, 144, 170,212

V

Vaccinium, V. macrocarpon 147, 280-81

V. myrtillus 147

V. vitis-idaea 147

vaginal yeast infection 3 14, 3 17

valerian 10, 32, 148
Valeriana, V. capensis 148

V. hardwickii 148

V. officinalis 10,32, 148
V. ulginosa 148
V. wallichi 148
varicose veins 302, 3 17
varuna 88
vasaka 160

Verbascum thapsus 47, 281
Verbena, V hastata 149
V. officinalis 46,47, 149, 151
vermouth 66
Veronica ofpcinalis 281
Veronicastrum virginicum see Leptandra
virginica
vertigo 306

vervain 46, 47, 149, 151
Viburnum, V. opulus 13, 33, 49, 150

V prunifolium 150, 281

V rufidulum 28 I

Vietnamese herbal medicine 22
Vinca, V major 282
V. minor 281-82

V rosea 1 6 , 282
Viola, V canina 282

V odorata 282

7 tricolor 35, 282

V yedoens 282
viper’s bugloss 204
Virginia peppergrass 227-28
Virginian skullcap 135
Viscum album 13, 283
visnaga 13, 15, 19, 44, 47, 62
“vital force” 24-25

“vital spirit” 32, 35
vitality, general 3 I 6, 3 17, 3 19
vitamins 16

Vitex agnus-castus 13,33, 151
Vitis vinifera 15, 81 ,283
volatile oils 14

vomiting see nausea & vomiting
vulnerary herbs, action of 12, 13

W

wahoo bark 208

wallflower 187

walnut 224

Wang Lu 27

“warming” herbs 27, 38

warts 304

washes 297

water figwort 268

water hyssop 175

watercress 16, 239

watermelon 190

watermint I 14

wax gourd 177

weeping forsythia 212

weeping skin 300, 303

wheezing & shortness of breath 301

white beet 178

white bryony 180

white dead nettle 226

white elm 145

white horehound 233

white lotus 240-41

white mulberry 237-38

white peony 42, 117

white pond lily 240

white water lily 240—41

white willow 13, 14,26, 129, 140

wild cherry 15,257-58

wild chrysanthemum 78

wild cinnamon I 82

wild herbs, harvesting 288

wild horehound 208

wild hydrangea 221

wild indigo 176-77

wild iris 223

wild lettuce 225-26

wild marjoram 242—43

wild onion 164

wild sarsaparilla 170

wild strawberry 212-13

wild thyme 143, 276-77

wild yam 9, 15, 49, 186

winter cherry 247

winter savory 267

wintergreen 14,215

witch hazel 13, 50, 102

withania38, 152

Withania somnifera 38, 152

Withering, William 26, 202

wood anemone 168

wood apple 210

woolly foxglove 202

World Health Organization 29, 45

wormseed 188

wormwood 13, 16, 66 , 67, 172

wound-healing herbs 12, 13
wounds, minor 304

see also cuts & grazes
wu jia pi 94
wu mei 257
wu wei zi 133
wu zhu yu 209

X

xian he cao 162
xuan fu hua 107

Y

yan hu suo (corydalis) 86
yang (Chinese concept) 40—42, 43
tonics 81

yarrow 33, 56, 29 I
ye hu hua 78
yellow balsam 196
yellow dock 65, 264-65
Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine
(Chinese text) 19-20, 40
yellow foxglove 202
yellow jasmine 13, 216
yellow loosestrife 231
yellow pheasant’s eye 160
yellow pimpernel 23 I
yellow water crowsfoot 261
yerba dulce 229
yerba santa 205
yew 275
yi zhi ren 61

yin (Chinese concept) 40-42, 43
tonics 83, 95, 125
yin chen hao 172
ylang-ylang 182
yohimbe 245
yu mi shu 154
yuan zhi 252

Z

Zanthoxylum, Z. americanum 48, 153
Z. bungeanum 153
Z. capense 153
Z. clava-herculis 153
Z. zanthoxyloides 153
Zeamays 13,23,48,71, 154, 161, 162
zedoary 198
zhe bei mu 43
zhi mu 168
zhi zi 215

Zingiber officinale 13, 22, 38, 39, 61,81,

I 16, 155, 287, 298
Ziziphus, Zjujuba 283
Z. spinosa 43, 283

331

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GENERAL INDEX

INDEX OF HERBS BY AILMENT

Index of Herbs
by Ailment

This index includes a wide range of ailments, listing key herbs used to
treat each one. Page numbers in bold denote a self-help use.

A

Abdominal pain see Stomach spasm
Acidity see Indigestion

Acne & boils

burdock (Arctium lappa) 65, 305
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 304
clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 305
comfrey (Symphytum officinale) 138, 305
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 141, 305
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 305
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 305
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 305
myrrh (Commiphora molmol) 85, 305
slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145, 305
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) I 12, 305
Aging & debility

ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 152,

319

codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) 83, 319
fo ti (Polygonum mutiforum) 124
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 319
ginseng (Panax ginseng) I 18, 319
goji berry (Lycium chinense) I I I
oats (Avena sativa) 175, 3 19
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 319
see also Blood pressure, high; Circulatory
problems; Digestive problems; Joint pain
& stiffness; Liver function; Memory &
concentration failure

Alcoholic poisoning, milk thistle (Silybum
marianum) 137
Allergic rhinitis & hay fever

Baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis)
134, 300

boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) 208, 300
common plantain (Plantago major) 25 I,

300

332

echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 300
elder (Sambucus nigra) 132, 300
eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis) 209, 300
goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea) 271 , 300
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) 165, 300
nettle (Urtica dioica) 146, 300
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 300
Anemia

chiretta (Swertia chirata) 273, 301
gentian (Gentiana lutea) 99, 301
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 301
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) 66, 301

Angina

arjun (Terminalia arjuna) 142
cattail (Typha angustifolia) 279
dan shen (Salvia miltiorrhiza) 130
hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) 87
notoginseng (Panax notoginseng) 243
visnaga (Ammi visnaga) 62
Anorexia see Appetite loss
Anxiety & tension

codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) 83, 308
damiana (Turnera difusa) 144, 308
lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) I 13, 308
passionflower (Passifora incarnata) I 19
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106, 308

Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus
senticosus) 94, 308

skullcap (Scutelleria laterifora) 135, 308
valerian (Valeriana officinalis) 148, 308
see also Stress

Appetite loss

bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) 226-27
bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata) 235
calumba (Jateorhiza palmate) 225
cinchona (Cinchona spp.) 80
codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) 83, 306
condurango (Marsdenia condurango) 233
gentian (Gentiana lutea) 99, 301
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 101,306
lovage (Levisticum officinale) 228
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
radish (Raphanus sativus) 261
sweet flag (Acorus calamus) 57
Arthritis & gout
avocado (Persea americana) 121
bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) 226-27
black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) 79, 313
bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata) 235
boswellia (Boswellia serrata) 179
celery (Apium graveolens) 64, 3 1 3
deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna)
69,313

devil’s claw (Harpagophytum
procumbens) 103, 3 I I
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 3 13
meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) 98, 313
northern prickly ash (Zanthoxylum
americanum) 153

pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) 247-48
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90
white willow (Salix alba) 129, 313
see also Joint pain & stiffness; Rheumatism

Asthma

Baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) 134,

301

crampbark (Viburnum opulus) 150, 301
desmodium (Desmodium adscendens) 20 1
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 301
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 301

gumplant (Grindelia camporum) 2 1 8
lobelia (Lobelia inflata) I 10
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 301
passionflower (Passifora incarnata) I 19
pill-bearing spurge (Euphorbia hirta) 209
Seneca snakeroot (Polygala senega) 252
thornapple (Datura stramonium) 200-20 1
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 301
visnaga (Ammi visnaga) 62
wild cherry (Prunus serotina) 257-58
Athlete’s foot

calendula (Calendula offcinalis) 73, 304
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90, 304

B

Back pain

crampbark (Viburnum opulus) 150, 313
devil’s claw (Harpagophytum
procumbens) 103, 313

lavender (Lavandula officinalis) 108, 313
lobelia (Lobelia infata) I 10
pepper (Piper nigrum) 250, 3 1 3
northern prickly ash (Zanthoxylum
americanum) 153, 313
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106,313

thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 3 13
white willow (Salix alba) 129, 313
Bedwetting, California poppy (Eschscholzia
californica) 207

Bites see Stings, bites, & swellings

Bladder stones see Stones
Bleeding

American cranesbill (Geranium
maculatum) 2 16

bistort (Polygonum bistorta) 253
cattail (Typha angustifolia) 279
common plantain (Plantago major) 251
greater burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis) 266
horsetail (Equisetum arvense) 205
lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) 281-82
notoginseng (Panax notoginseng) 243
self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) 256
Bloating see Gas & bloating
Blood pressure, high
asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida) 210-1 I
beetroot (Beta vulgaris) 178, 301
blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) 262
buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) 2 10,
319

garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 301, 3 19
ginger (Zingiber offcinale) 155, 301
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) 100, 301
hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) 87
Indian snakeroot (Rauvolfa serpentina) 261
linden (Tilia spp.) 277
olive (Olea europaea) 241-42
pomegranate (Punica granatum) 259, 301
Blood-sugar levels, high see Diabetes
Boils see Acne & boils
Breast tenderness & sore nipples
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 315
German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita)
77,315
Bronchitis

cajuput (Melaleuca leucadendron) 234, 310
cowslip (Primula veris) 256
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 3 10
elecampane (Inula helenium) 107, 310
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) 96, 310
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 310
gumplant (Grindelia camporum) 2 18
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 101,310
lovage (Levisticum offcinale) 228
lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis) 259
Seneca snakeroot (Polygala senega) 252
soap bark (Quillaja saponaria) 260
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 3 10
white horehound (Marrubium vulgare) 233
Bruises

arnica (Arnica montana) 172, 304
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 304
comfrey (Symphytum offcinale) 138
common plantain (Plantago major) 25 1
Solomon’s seal (Polygonatum multiforum)
252-53

witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) 102,

304

Burns & scalds

aloe vera (Aloe vera) 60, 303
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 303
lavender (Lavandula officinalis) 108, 303
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) I 12

C

Cancer

arborvitae (Thuja occidentale) 276
flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) 109
mistletoe (Viscum album) 283
pau d’arco (Tabebuia spp) 139
suma (Pfaffia paniculata) 246
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90
Candidiasis see Fungal infections; Thrush
Cellulitis, wintergreen (Gaultheria
procumbens) 2 15

Chicken pox see Cold sores, chicken pox,
& shingles

Chilblains

echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 302
ginger (Zingiber offcinale) 155, 302
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 302

Childbirth

bethroot (Trillium erectum) 278
broom (Cytisus scoparius) 200
cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) 217-18
fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
227-28

raspberry (Rubus idaeus) 264, 317
squaw vine (Mitchella repens) 235-36
Cholesterol levels, high
alfalfa (Medicago sativa) 233-34
butternut (juglans cinerea) 224
eggplant (Solanum melongena) 270-71
fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
227-28

guggul (Commiphora mukul) 193
oats (Avena sativa) 175
rose (Rosa gallica) 263
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90

Crohn’s disease

German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita)
77

psyllium (Plantago spp.) 123
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) 66
Circulatory problems
beet (Beta vulgaris) 178, 301
cayenne (Capsicum frutescens) 74, 302
crampbark (Viburnum opulus) 150, 302
dan shen (Salvia miltiorrhiza) 130
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 302
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 301
ginger (Zingiber offcinale) 155, 301
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) 100, 301
goji berry (Lycium chinense) I I I
northern prickly ash (Zanthaxylum
americanum) 153,302
pomegranate (Punica granatum) 259, 301
Cold sores, chicken pox, & shingles
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 304
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 304
ginger (Zingiber offcinale) 155, 304
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 304
lemon balm (A4e//sso offcinalis) 113, 304
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106, 304
Colds & flu

boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) 208, 3 11
cardamom (Eletteria cardamomum) 93, 3 11
catnip (Nepeta catoria) 239-40
cayenne (Capsicum frutescens) 74, 3 I I
cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum spp.) 81,
311

clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 31 I
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 31 I
elder (Sambucus nigra) 132, 31 I
elderberry (Sambucus nigra) 1 32, 3 11 , 3 18
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) 96
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 31 I

gentian ( Gentiana lutea) 99, 31 I
ginger (Zingiber officinale ) 155, 31 I
lemon (Citrus limon ) 82, 31 I
lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) 113,311
onion (Allium cepa) 164, 31 I
pelargonium (Pelargonium sidoides ) 120,
318

pepper (Piper nigrum ) 250, 31 I
thyme (Thymus vulgaris ) 1 43, 31 1 , 3 12 , 318
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium ) 66, 311
yarrow (Achillea millefolium ) 56, 31 I

Colic

anise (Pimpinella anisum) 248, 3 1 8
cayenne (Capsicum frutescens ) 74
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita ) 77, 318

ginger (Zingiber officinale) 155, 318
slippery elm (Ulmus rubra ) 145, 318
star anise (lllicium verum) 222-3
sweet flag (Acorus calamus ) 57
winter savory (Satureja montana ) 267
Congestion & sinus problems
asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida) 210-1 I
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 3 12
elder (Sambucus nigra ) 132, 312
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus ) 96, 312
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita ) 77, 312

ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea ) 216-17
lavender (Lavandula officinalis) 108, 312
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis ) 1 65, 312
mullein (Verbascum thapsus ) 281
Peruvian balsam (Myroxylon pereirae) 239
thyme (Thymus vulgaris ) 143, 312
tree lungwort (Lobaria pulmonaria ) 229
white mulberry (A/lorus o/bo) 237
see a/so Allergic rhinitis; Earache
In children

catnip (Nepeta catoria ) 239^40
thyme (Thymus vulgaris ) 143, 318

Constipation

alder buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula)
261-62

butternut (Juglans cinerea) 224
Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmatum)

126, 307

crampbark (Viburnum opulus ) 150, 307
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale ) 141, 307
fig (F/cus caricd) 21 1, 307
flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum ) 109, 317
ginger (Zingiber officinale) 155, 307
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 101, 307
psyllium (Plantago spp.) 123, 317
senna (Cassia senna) 75, 307
yellow dock (Rumex crispus) 264, 307
In children

flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) 109, 318
slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145, 318

Convalescence

arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) 233
ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 152,

308

barley (Hordeum vulgare) 220-21
cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) 81
manioc (Manihot esculenta) 232-33
oats (Avena sativa) 175
vervain (Verbena offcinalis) 149
Convulsions

gou teng (Uncaria rhynchophylla) 280
passionflower (Passifora incarnata) I 19

Coronary heart disease see Heart disease
Coughs

balm of Gilead (Populus x candicans) 254,

310

cajuput (Melaleuca leucadendron) 234, 310

coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) 278-79
cowslip (Primula veris) 256
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 310
elderberry (Sambucus nigra) 132, 318
elecampane (Inula helenium) 1 07, 310
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) 96, 310
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 310
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 101,310
lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis) 259
mullein (Verbascum thapsus) 28 1
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 310
wild cherry (Prunus serotina) 257-58

Cradle cap

calendula (Calendula off cinalis) 73
olive (Olea europaea) 241,318

Cramps see Muscle aches & cramps;
Period pain

Cuts see Wounds, cuts, & scrapes

Cystitis

agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) I 62
buchu (Barosma betulina) 71,314
celery (Apium graveolens) 64
cornsilk (Zea mays) 154, 314
gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides) 2 15
juniper (juniperus communis) 224, 3 14
larch (Larix decidua) 226
marshmallow (Althaea off cinalis) 165
sandalwood (Santalum album) 266
sea holly (Eryngium maritimum) 206
uva-ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) 170

D

Dementia

ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) 100

lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) 281-82

Depression

damiana (Turnera difusa) 144
lemon balm (Melissa off cinalis) I 13
lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) 228
patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) 252
rose (Rosa gallica) 263
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106, 308

Dermatitis see Eczema

Diabetes

artichoke (Cynara scolymus) 199
bitter melon (Momordica charantia) 236
boswellia (Boswellia serrata) 179
cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) 81
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 246-47
guar gum (Cyanopsis tetragonoloba) 198
gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre) 218-19
holy basil (Ocimum tenuiforum) I 16
jambul (Syzygium cumini) 274
neem (Azadirachta indica) 70
nikkar nut (Gaesalpinia bonduc) 180-81

Diaper rash

calendula (Calendula off cinalis) 73, 3 18
chickweed (Stellaria media) 272, 318
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 318

Diarrhea

agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) 162, 307
Asian plum (Prunus meme) 257
bael (Aegle marmelos) 161 , 307
bistort (Polygonum bistorta) 253, 307
black catechu (Acacia catechu) 158, 307
chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula)
275-6

hartstongue (Scolopendrium vulgare) 268
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) 165, 307
mint (Mentha spp.) 234—35, 307
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
peepal (Ficus religiosa) 2 12
peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14, 307

psyllium (Plantago spp.) 123, 307
rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) 27 1 -72
sage (Salvia off cinalis) 13 1 , 307
silverweed (Potentilla anserina) 255-56
tamarind (Tamarindus indica) 274, 307
tormentil (Potentilla erecta) 256
In children

agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) 162, 318
barley (Hordeum vulgare) 220-21
common plantain (Plantago major) 25 I,

318

Digestive problems

asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida) 210-1 I
beleric myrobalan (Terminalia belerica)
275

calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 305
calumba (Jateorhiza palmate i) 224
catnip (Nepeta cataria) 239, 305
centaury (Erythraea centaurium) 206
chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula)
275-76

chiretta (Swertia chi rata) 273-74
cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) 81
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 305
gentian (Gentiana lutea) 99, 3 19
Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) 186, 307
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 306
lemon balm (Melissa off cinalis) I 13, 308
purslane (Portulaca oleracea) 255
meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) 98, 307
peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14, 305
tamarind (Tamarindus indica) 274
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90
vervain (Verbena off cinalis) 149
winter savory (Satureja montana) 267
wood apple (Feronia limonia) 2 10
yarrow (Achillea millefolium) 56, 305
In children

anise (Pimpinella anisum) 248, 3 18
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 318

ginger (Zingiber officinale) 155, 318
slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145, 318
see also Colic; Constipation; Diarrhea;
Diverticulitis; Gas & bloating;

Indigestion; Stomach spasm
Diverticulitis

slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145
wild yam (Dioscorea villosa) 91
Dysentery see Diarrhea

E

Earache

echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 312
elder (Sambucus nigra) 132, 3 12
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 312
lavender (Lavandula off cinalis) 108, 312
marshmallow (Althaea off cinalis) 1 65, 312
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 312
Eczema

albizzia (Albizzia lebbeck) 163
chickweed (Stellaria media) 272, 300
fumitory (Fu maria off cinalis) 2 13
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 300

gotu kola (Centella asiatica) 76, 300
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
oats (Avena sativa) 175, 300
peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14, 300
witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) 102, 300
Epilepsy see Convulsions
Eye problems

cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) 185, 310
eyebright (Euphrasia off cinalis) 209, 310

German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 3 1 0
goji berry (Lycium chinense) I I I
ju hua (Chrysanthemum morifolium) 78, 310
see also Glaucoma

F

Fatigue

codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) 83
goji berry (Lycium chinense) I I I
mate (Ilex paraguariensis) 222
rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) 127
Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus
senticosus) 94

Fertility problems in men & women

ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 152,

316

chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) 151,316
Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis) 63, 316
morinda (Morinda off cinalis) 237
see also Impotence & premature
ejaculation
Fevers

avens (Geum urbanum) 2 16
boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) 208, 31 I
bupleurum (Bupleurum chinense) 72
cardamom (Eletteria cardamomum) 93, 311
cayenne (Capsicum frutescens) 74, 3 I I
cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum spp.) 81,
311

clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 3 I I
fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
227-8

gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides) 2 15
gentian (Gentiana lutea) 99, 31 I
ginger (Zingiber officinale) 1 55, 31 I
horsemint (Monarda punctata) 236
onion (Allium cepa) 164, 31 I
pepper (Piper nigrum) 250, 31 I
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) 66, 311
yarrow (Achillea millefolium) 56, 31 I
In children

Catnip (Nepeta cataria) 239-40
Flu see Colds & flu

Fluid retention

blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) 262
celery (Apium graveolens) 64
cornsilk (Zea mays) 154, 3 17
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 141,315
squill (Urginea maritima) 280
Fractures see Sprains & fractures
Fungal infections

calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 304,

314

clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 304
comfrey (Symphytum officinale) 138, 304
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 314
elder (Sambucus nigra) 132, 314
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 304, 314
pau d’arco (Tabebuia spp.) 139, 3 14
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) I 12, 304,
314

thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 304, 3 1 4
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90, 304
see also Thrush

G

Gallbladder problems

black root (Leptandra virginica) 228
boldo (Peumus boldo) 246
wahoo bark (Euonymus atropurpureus) 208
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) 66

Gallstones see Stones
Gas & bloating

333

www.ebook3000.com

INDEX OF HERBS BY AILMENT

INDEX OF HERBS BY AILMENT

anise (Pimpinello onisum ) 248, 306
black root (Leptandra virginica) 228
cardamom (Eletteria cardamomum) 93, 306
cayenne (Capsicum frutescens) 74
centaury (Erythraea centaurium ) 206, 306
fennel (Foeniculum vulgore ) 212, 306
gentian (Gentiana lutea) 99, 306
ginger (Zingiber officinale ) 155, 318
lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora ) 228, 306
lovage (Levisticum officinale) 228
pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) 235
peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14, 306
sweet flag (Acorus calamus) 57
winter savory (Satureja montana) 267
Gastritis see Indigestion
Glaucoma

coleus (Coleus forskohlii) 84
marijuana (Cannabis sativa) 182
Gout see Arthritis & gout

Gum problems

myrrh (Commiphora molmol) 85, 306
sage (Salvia officinalis) 131, 306
see also Mouth & tongue ulcers

334

H

Hemorrhoids

American cranesbill (Geranium
maculatum) 216

blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) 264
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 302
common oak (Quercus robur) 259, 302
common plantain (Plantago major) 25 I
lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) 260,
302

psyllium (Plantago spp.) 123, 302
slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145, 302
witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) 102,

302

Halitosis

cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) 93
dill (Anethum graveolens) 168
ju hua (Chrysanthemum morifolium) 78
rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) 127

Hangover

dandelion (Taraxacum ofpcinale) 141, 309
kudzu (Pueraria lobata) 258-59
milk thistle (Silybum marianum) 137
Hay fever see Allergic rhinitis

Headaches

betony (Stachys officinalis) 272
bo he (Mentha haplocalyx) 234, 306
catnip (Nepeta catoria) 239-40
feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) 140
gou teng (Uncaria rhynchophylla) 280
lavender (Lavandula officinalis) 108, 309
linden (Tilia spp.) 277, 309,317
pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) 235, 306,
309

peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14,

306, 309

rosemary (Rosmarinus offcinalis) 128, 309
skullcap (Scutelleria laterifora) 135, 308
valerian (Valeriana offcinalis) 148, 309
vervain (Verbena offcinalis) 149, 309
Heart disease
arjun (Terminals arjuna) 142
broom (Cytisus scoparius) 200
coleus (Coleus forskohlii ) 84
hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) 87
night-blooming cereus (Selenicereus
grandiforus) 268-9
Heartburn

meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) 98, 317
see also Gas & bloating

Hepatitis see Liver problems

HIV/AIDS

bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) 2 13
cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa) 280
ju hua (Chrysanthemum x morifolium) 78

Impotence & premature ejaculation

bu gu zhi (Psoralea corylifolia) 258
ginseng (Panax ginseng) I 18,316
morinda (Morinda offcinalis) 237
muira puama (Ptychopetalum olacoides) 258
saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) 136, 3 16
schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) 133,316
Indigestion

allspice (Pimenta officinalis) 248
anise (Pimpinella anisum) 248, 307
arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) 233, 307
clary sage (Salvia sclarea) 265
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) 2 12, 307
galbanum (Ferula gummosa) 211, 307
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 307

Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) 186, 307
meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) 98,

307, 313

slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145, 307
sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) 241

Insomnia

ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 152,

309

hops (Humulus lupulus) 104, 309
lavender (Lavandula offcinalis) 108, 309
linden (Tilia spp.) 277, 309
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
oats (Avena sativa) 175, 309
passionflower (Passifora incarnata) I 19,
309, 313

red poppy (Papaver rhoeas) 244
Siberian ginseng (Fleutherococcus
senticosus) 94, 309

valerian (Valeriana offcinalis) 148, 309, 313
In children

German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 309,318
Irritable bowel syndrome see Diarrhea

j

Joint pain & stiffness

comfrey (Symphytum ofpcinale) 138, 313
lavender (Lavandula offcinalis) 108, 313
ephedra (Ephedra sinica) 96
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106,313

see also Arthritis & gout; Rheumatism

K

Kidney problems

da ji (Euphorbia pekinensis) 209
eucommia bark (Fucommia ulmoides) 207
Java tea (Orthosiphon aristata) 243
ephedra (Ephedra sinica) 95
rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa) 125
schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) 133
Kidney stones see Stones

L

Laryngitis see Sore throats

Liver problems

andrographis (Andrographis paniculata) 167
chiretta (Swertia chi rata) 273
desmodium (Desmodium adscendens) 20 1
eucommia bark (Fucommia ulmoides) 207

goji berry (Lycium chinense) I I I
milk thistle (Silybum marianum) 137
phyllanthus (Phyllanthis amarus) 247
picrorrhiza (Picrorrhiza kurroa) 248
quassia (Picrasma excelsa) 248
rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa) 125, 310
schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) 133
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90

M

Malaria

boneset (Fupatorium perfoliatum) 208
cinchona (Cinchona spp.) 80
fever bark (Alstonia spp.) 165
fo ti (Polygonum mutiforum) 124
neem (Azadirachta indica) 70
sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua) 67
tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) 162
Measles

kudzu (Pueraria lobata) 258-59
safflower (Carthamus tinctoria) 184
Memory & concentration failure
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) 100, 319
gotu kola (Gentella asiatoca) 76, 319
hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) 87
Menopausal problems
black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) 79,

316

chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) 151,316
oats (Avena sativa) 175, 316
sage (Salvia offcinalis) 131,316
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106,316

shatavari (Asparagus racemosus) 174, 316
white peony (Paeonia lactifora) I 17, 3 16
white willow (Salix alba) 129, 316

Menstrual problems see Period pain;
Periods, heavy or irregular; Premenstrual
syndrome

Migraine

feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) 140, 309
skullcap (Scutelleria laterifora) 135, 309
see also Headaches
Morning sickness
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) 212, 317
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 3 17

ginger (Zingiber officinale) 155, 3 17
Mouth & tongue ulcers

avens (Geum urbanum) 2 16
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 306
lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) 281-82
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 101, 306
myrrh (Commiphora molmol) 85, 306
rhatany (Krameria triandra) 225
sage (Salvia offcinalis) 131, 306
tormentil (Potentilla erecta) 256
Mumps, peepal (Ficus religiosa) 2 12
Muscle aches & cramps
arnica (Arnica montana) 172, 312
cinchona (Cinchona spp.) 80
crampbark (Viburnum opulus) 150, 312
lobelia (Lobelia in fata) I 10
passionflower (Passifora incarnata) I 19
rosemary (Rosmarinus offcinalis) 128, 312
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) 106
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 312

N

Nausea & motion sickness

bo he (Mentha haplocalyx) 234, 306
centaury (Erythraea centaurium) 206, 306
chiretta (Swertia chi rata) 273, 306
clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 306

galangal (Alpinia offcinarum) 61, 306
ginger (Zingiber ofpcinale) 155, 306
horsemint (Monarda punctata) 236
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 306
lemon balm (A/1e//sso offcinalis) I 13, 305
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) 235, 306
peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14,306
turmeric (Curcuma longa) 90, 306
see also Morning sickness; Vomiting
Nephritis see Kidney problems
Nerve pain see Neuralgia
Nettle rash, nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 303
Neuralgia

clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 308
lavender (Lavandula offcinalis) 108, 308
peppermint (Mentha x piperita) I 14, 308
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106, 308

see also Pain relief

Nipples, sore see Breast tenderness &
sore nipples

Nosebleeds

American cranesbill (Geranium
maculatum) 216, 310
eyebright (Euphrasia offcinalis) 209, 3 10
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 310

O

Osteoarthritis see Arthritis & gout

P

Pain relief

boswellia (Boswellia serrata) 179
corydalis (Corydalis yanhusuo) 86
crampbark (Viburnum opulus) 150, 312,

313,315

eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) 96
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) 221-2
Jamaica dogwood (Piscidia erythrina) 251
kava (Piper methysticum) 122
opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) 244
passionflower (Passifora incarnata) I 19
quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) 255
In children

red poppy (Papaver rhoeas) 244
see also Joint pain & stiffness; Muscle
aches & cramps; Neuralgia

Palpitations

dan shen (Salvia miltiorrhiza) 130, 302
lemon balm (A/1e//sso offcinalis) 113, 308
linden (Tilia spp.) 277, 302
valerian (Valeriana offcinalis) 148, 302
see also Panic attacks
Panic attacks
linden (7/'//ospp.) 277, 302
motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca) 2TJ, 302
skullcap (Scutelleria laterifora) 135, 308
valerian (Valeriana offcinalis) 148, 302
see also Palpitations
Parkinson’s disease

deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) 69
harmala (Peganum barmaid) 245
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) 221-22
thornapple (Datura stramonium) 200-201

Peptic ulcers

currytree (Murraya koenigii) 238
deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) 69
fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
227-8

matico (Piper angustifolia) 249-50
potato (Solanum tuberosum) 2J I

Period pain

black haw (Viburnum prunifolium) 2 1 8 , 3 15

caraway (Corum carvi) 184, 315
corydalis ( Corydolis yonhusuo ) 86
crampbark (Viburnum opulus ) 150, 3 15
white peony ( Paeonia lactiflora) I 17, 315
wild yam (Dioscorea villosa ) 91,315
Periods, heavy or irregular
bethroot ( Trillium erectum) 278
chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) 151,315
chuang xiong (Ligusticum wallachii ) I 17, 315
cotton ( Gossypium herbaceum ) 217-18
dong quai (Angelica sinensis ) 63, 315
greater burnet ( Sanguisorba officinalis ) 266
ji xue teng (Milletta reticulata ) 235
motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca ) 227, 315
nettle (Urtica dioica ) 146, 3 15
rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa ) 125, 315
shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-
pastoris ) 183, 315

squaw vine (Mitchella repens ) 235-36
white dead nettle (Lamium album ) 226
white peony (Paeonia lactiflora ) I 17, 315

Pleurisy

do ji (Euphorbia pekinensis) 209
marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) 165
milkwort (Polygala vulgaris ) 252
pleurisy root (Asclepias tuberosa) 173-74
Polyps, arborvitae (Thuja occidentale) 276
Premenstrual syndrome
linden (Tilia spp.) 277, 3 15
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 128, 3 15
valerian (Valeriana officinalis) 148, 3 15
vervain (Verbena officinalis) 149, 3 15
Prostate, enlarged
couch grass (Agropyron repens) 162
garlic (Allium sativum) 59
gravel root (Eupatorium purpureum) 309
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146
pumpkin (Curcubita pepo) 197
pygeum (Pygeum africanum) 260
saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) 136
sea holly (Eryngium maritimum) 206

R

Rashes see Diaper rash; Skin disorders
Raynaud’s disease, northern prickly ash
(Zanthoxylum americanum) 153
Respiratory problems
beleric myrobalan (Terminalia belerica) 275
bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) 266
elecampane (Inula helenium) 107
ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea) 216-17
holy basil (Ocimum tenuiforum) I 16
hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) 222
levant storax (Liquidambar orientalis) 229
lobelia (Lobelia infata) I 10
mouse-ear hawkweed (Hieracium
pilosella) 220

soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) 267
thyme (Thymus vulgaris ) 143, 301 , 3 10
yerba santa (Eriodictyon californicum) 205
see also Allergic rhinitis & hay fever;
Asthma; Bronchitis; Congestion & sinus
problems; Colds & flu; Coughs
Rheumatism

cayenne (Capsicum frutescens) 74
devil’s claw (Harpagophytum
procumbens) 103, 31 I
gotu kola (Centella asiatica) 76
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) 221-22
lignum vitae (Guaiacum offcinale) 219
northern prickly ash (Zanthoxylum
americanum) 153
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) 255

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) 249
star anise (lllicium verum) 222-3
wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) 215
see also Arthritis & gout
Ringworm, Ceylon leadwort (Plumbago
zeylanica) 251

5

Scabies, Ceylon leadwort (Plumbago
zeylanica) 251
Sex drive, low
damiana (Turnera difusa) 144
gokulakanta (Hygrophila spinosa) 221
schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) 133,

316

shatavari (Asparagus racemosus) 174, 315
Shingles see Cold sores, chicken pox,

6 shingles

Sinus problems see Allergic rhinitis & hay
fever; Congestion & sinus problems
Skin disorders
aloe vera (Aloe vera) 60, 303
avocado (Persea americana) 121
bittersweet (Solanurn dulcamara) 270
burdock (Arctium lappa) 65, 303
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 303,
304

chickweed (Stellaria media) 272, 303
clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 304
comfrey (Symphytum offcinale) 138,

303, 304

dandelion (Taraxacum offcinale) 141, 303
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 304
gotu kola (Centella asiatica) 76, 300
houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum) 269
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 303
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) I 12, 304
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 304
witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) 102,
303

yellow dock (Rumex crispus) 264, 303
see also Acne & boils; Burns & scalds;
Cold sores, chicken pox, & shingles;
Diaper rash; Stings, bites, & swellings;
warts

Sore throats

bistort (Polygonum bistorta) 253
blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) 264
blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) 262
cayenne (Capsicum frutescens) 74
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 3 I I
henna (Lawsonia inernis) 227
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 3 I I
lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) 281-82
myrrh (Commiphora molmo\) 85, 3 1 I
rhatany (Krameria triandra) 225
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 128, 3 1 I
sage (Salvia officinalis) 131,311
silverweed (Potentilla anserina) 255-56
tamarind (Tamarindus indica) 2JA, 31 I
Sprains & fractures
arnica (Arnica montana) 172, 3 12
comfrey (Symphytum officinale) 138, 3 12
Stings, bites, & swellings
aloe vera (Aloe vera) 60, 303
calendula (Calendula officinalis) 73, 303
echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 303
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 303

holy basil (Ocimum tenuiforum) I 1 6 , 303
lavender (Lavandula officinalis) 108, 303
lemon (Citrus limon) 82, 303
nettle (Urtica dioca) 146, 303
sage (Salvia officinalis) 13 1, 303

St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
106, 303

sweet basil (Ocimum tenuiforum) 241, 303
thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 143, 303

Stomach spasm

angelica (Angelica archangelica) 168, 305
anise (Pimpinella anisum) 248, 305
crampbark (Viburnum opulus) 150, 305
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) 2 12, 305
German chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) 77, 305

lemon balm (A/le/Zssa officinalis) I 13, 305
mint (Mentha spp.) 234-5, 305
see also Digestive problems
Stones (bladder, gall, & kidney)
carrot (Daucus carota) 20 1
couch grass (Agropyron repens) 162
gravel root (Eupatorium purpureum) 309
heather (Calluna vulgaris) 181
pellitory-of-the-wall (Parietaria officinalis)
245

sea holly (Eryngium maritimum) 206
spiny restharrow (Ononis spinosa) 242
varuna (Crataeva nurvula) 88
visnaga (Ammi visnaga) 62
wild hydgrangea (Hydrangea arborescens)
221
Stress

ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 152,

319

betony (Stachys officinalis) 272
codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) 83, 3 19
ginseng (Panax ginseng) I 18, 308, 319
holy basil (Ocimum tenuiforum) I 16
lemon balm (MeZ/ssa offcinalis) I 13, 308
oats (Avena sativa) 175, 319
rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) \27, 319
schisandra (Schisandra chinensis) 133
Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus
senticosus) 94, 308

valerian (Valeriana officinalis) 148, 308, 309
see also Anxiety & tension
Stretch marks
aloe vera (Aloe vera) 60, 31 7
olive (Olea europaea) 241,317
Sunburn see Burns & scalds

T

Teething

German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita)

77,318

slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) 145, 3 18

Thrush, oral

echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 3 10
licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 101,314
myrrh (Commiphora molmol) 85, 314

Tonsillitis

echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 311
pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) 247-8
wild marjoram (Origanum vulgare) 242-3
see also Sore throats

Toothache

clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) 97, 308
Jamaica dogwood (Piscidia erythrina) 251
kava (Piper methysticum) 122
Travel sickness see Nausea & motion sickness

U

Ulcerative colitis see Diarrhea
Ulcers see Mouth & tongue ulcers; Peptic
ulcers

Urinary infections

bilberry (Vaccimium myrtillus) 147, 314
buchu (Barosma betulina) 71, 314

celery (Apium graveolens) 64
cornsilk (Zea mays) 154, 314
cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)
280-281

echinacea (Echinacea spp.) 92, 314
garlic (Allium sativum) 59, 3 14
goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea) 271,314
gravel root (Eupatorium purpureum) 309
juniper (Juniperus communis) 224, 314
marshmallow (Althaea offcinalis) 165,
314

saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) 136
spiny restharrow (Ononis spinosa) 242
see also Cystitis; Kidney problems

V

Vaginal discharge

amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus)
165

American cranesbill (Geranium
maculatum) 2 16
buchu (Barosma betulina) 71
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) 100
white deadnettle (Lamium album) 226
Varicose veins

butcher’s broom (Ruscus aculeatus) 265
calendula (Calendula offcinalis) 73, 302
witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) 102,

302

yarrow (Achillea millefolium) 56, 302

Vertigo

black horehound (Ballota nigra) 176, 306
bupleurum (Bupleurum chinense) 72
self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) 256

Vomiting

black horehound (Ballota nigra) 176, 306
codonopsis (Codonopsis pilosula) 83, 306
nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) I 15
sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) 241
see also Nausea & travel sickness

WXYZ

Warts

aloe vera (Aloe vera) 60, 304
arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis) 276, 304
banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) 2 1 I

Worms

avocado (Persea americana) 121
embelia (Embelia ribes) 204
grape jasmine (Ervatamia coronaria) 205
pinkroot (Spigelia marilandica) 272
pomegranate (Punica granatum) 259
pumpkin (Curcubita pepo) 197
In children

black cumin (Nigella sativa) 240

Wounds, cuts, & scrapes

aloe vera (Aloe vera) 60, 304
benzoin gum (Styrax benzoin) 273
calendula (Calendula offcinalis) 73, 304
comfrey (Symphytum offcinale) 138, 304
gotu kola (Centella asiatica) 76
myrtle (Myrtus communis) 239
Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) 256
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) I 12
witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) 102,
304

yarrow (Achillea millefolium) 56, 304
Yeast infection, vaginal

buchu (Barosma betulina) 71
calendula (Calendula offcinalis) 73, 304
goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) 105
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) I 12, 3 1 4

335

www.ebook3000.com

INDEX OF HERBS BY AILMENT

USEFUL ADDRESSES

Jl

336

Useful

Websites

Herbalist organizations

See p. 320 for a list of herbalist
organizations.

Finding an herbal practitioner

Use the American Herbalists Guild’s Find
an Herbalist National Locator Service to
find AHG professional members in your
area.

www.americanherbalistsguild.com/

member-profiles

American Herbalists Guild
regional chapters

AHG chapters bring herbal communities
together to share their love of herbs, and
to provide support for the important
work of clinical herbalism all over the
country. Each chapter is unique, reflecting
the needs and interests of their
community. Check this list to see whether

there is chapter in your area.

www.americanherbalistsguild.com/

ahg-chapters

Herbal education

There are a plethora of educational
options in the U.S. and Canada, ranging
from introductory to postgraduate level.
The best guide to this richness can be
found at the AHG listing:
www.americanherbalistsguild.com/
school-profiles

A characteristic of the north American
herbal world is the wonderful range of
herb schools established by herbalists
around the country. Many are listed by
the AHG, but an example is the following:

California School of Herbal Studies
www.cshs.com

Degree courses

A number of universities now offer
degree courses at various levels. For
example:

Maryland University of Integrative
Health

www.muih.edu

Offers a Master of Science in
Therapeutic Herbalism

Bastyr University

www.bastyr.edu/academics/areas-study/

bs-major-herbal-sciences

The flagship school of naturopathic medicine
offers a well-respected Bachelor of Science
degree with a Major in Herbal Sciences.

Online and distance learning

Many online and correspondence courses
are offered by herbal teachers. For
example:

Sage Mountain
Rosemary Gladstar

www.sagemountain.com

Center for Herbal Studies
David Winston

www.herbalstudies.net

Foundations in Herbal Medicine

Tieraona Low Dog, MD

drlowdog.com

East West School of Planetary
Herbology

Michael and Leslie Tierra

www.planetherbs.com

The School of Natural Healing

Dr. John R. Christopher MH

www.snh.ee

Northeast School of Botanical Medicine

7Song

www/7 so ng.com

Herbal suppliers

Mountain Rose Herbs

The most comprehensive North
American supplier of all things herbal

www.mountamroseherbs.com

Frontier Co-op

Member-owned supplier of herbs, spices,
foods, and more since 1976

www.frontiercoop.com

Floracopeia

Suppliers of essential oils and flower
essences

www.floracopeia.com

Starwest Botanicals

One of the largest suppliers of organic
herbs in the United States

www.starwest-botanicals.com

Verditas Botanicals

Suppliers of 100 percent organic
essential oils

verditasbotanicals.com

Simplers Botanicals

A leading source of therapeutic-quality,
certified organic essential oils and herbal
extracts

https://simplers.com
Neal’s Yard

A world leader of natural health and
beauty, supplying essential oils and herbal
remedies

https://us.nyrorganic.com/shop/corp/

Equipment suppliers

An excellent guide with links to herbal

medicine making supplies can be found at:

www.livingawareness.com/medicine-

making-resources/

Mountain Rose Herbs is also a

comprehensive equipment supplier:

www.mountainroseherbs.com

Acknowledgments

Author’s Acknowledgments

Without the unfailing good humour and commitment of the
team at Dorling Kindersley this book would not have been
possible. My sincere and heartfelt thanks to Penny Warren,
Valerie Horn, Spencer Holbrook, Christa Weil and Rosie
Pearson. The responsibility for faults or omissions in this
encyclopedia is entirely mine, though I have been greatly
helped in compiling sections of this book by Anne McIntyre
MNIMH, Noel Rigby MNHAA and Eve Rogans MRTCM.

Many other fellow medical herbalists and colleagues have
contributed in discussion or ideas, whether knowingly or not,
to the writing of this book. The list cannot be exhaustive but
in particular I would like to thank Richard Adams MNIMH,
Celia Bell PhD, Christopher Hedley MNIMH, Michael McIntyre
FNIMH, Ellis Snitcher MD, Christine Steward MNIMH, Midge
Whitelegg PhD MNIMH and John Wilkinson PhD. Above all,

I am indebted to those who kept the fires of herbal medicine
burning in the mostly chill and dispiriting winds of the mid¬
twentieth century. Without their commitment and love for
herbal medicine, the current renaissance in plant medicine
would not be taking place. Lastly, to Maria, Leon and Tamara
for whom I have had so little time while writing, my deepest
thanks for your patience, love and understanding.

For the 2016 Edition

For this revised edition, DK staff have (as always) proved
themselves to be efficient, helpful, and gentle (but accurate)
in their critical comments. In particular, I want to thank Toby
Mann, for his thoughtful and skilful input during the editorial
process, and Lisa Dyer for steering the project to a successful
conclusion. I would also like to thank Julie Bruton-Seal, Kofi
Busia, Nikki Darrell, Jill Davies and Rowan Hamilton, who all (in
different ways) made essential contributions to this new edition.

Publisher’s Acknowledgments

DK would like in particular to thank Ruth Midgley for her
editorial expertise and Colin Nicholls MNIMH for his expert
advice and knowledge. Many thanks also to Tracey Beresford,
Polly Boyd, Joanna Chisholm, Charlotte Evans, Fay Franklin,
Fred Gill, Nell Graville, Constance Novis, Frank Ritter, Blanche
Sibbald, Linda Sonntag and Clare Stewart for editorial

assistance: to Tracey Clarke who contributed to the original
design and to Maxine Chung for design assistance: to Zoe
Saunders for modelling: to Raquel Leis and Ana Pedro for help
with finding plants; and to Kathie Gill for the index. Dorling
Kindersley are particularly grateful to Duncan Ross of
Poyntzfield Herb Nursery for photographing plants in the
Himalayas; to Fiona Crumley and the staff of the Chelsea
Physic Garden for their invaluable advice and to Dr Yongfeng
Wang at Aston University and Dr Y. Wong at Hosten
University, who helped track down and verify elusive Chinese
herbs. Many thanks also to Jacqueline Horn, Professor
Shouming Zhong of East-West Herbs; Noel Rigby and Woods
& Woods in Australia; Neal’s Yard in Covent Garden; Anthony
Lymon-Dixon of Arne Herbs; Hambledon Herbs and Iden
Croft Herbs of Kent. Grateful thanks also to Deni Bown, and
to James Morley and the staff of the Royal Botanic Gardens
Kew for their expertise. Also: University of Oklahoma Press,
University of California Press and Arkana.

For the 2016 Edition

DK would like to thank Jane Simmonds for proofreading, Marie
Lorimerfor preparingthe index, Karen Constanti and Philippa
Nash for design assistance, Alastair Laing for editorial advice
and support, and Vanessa Hamilton for additional illustrations.

2001 Edition Team

Project Editor Jennifer Jones, Art Editor Karen Sawyer,
Editor Lesley Riley, Picture Researcher Louise Thomas,

Category Publisher Mary-Clare Jerram, Art Director

Tracy Killick, Production Bethan Blase

Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine Reissue,

ISBN - 9780241229446; Picture Credits

The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind
permission to reproduce their photographs:

(Key: a-above; b-bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top)

A-Z Botanical Collection Ltd: Pallava Bagla: p80tla; Chris
Martin Bahr: 279tra; Pam Collins: 229cl; AKG/Musee du
Louvre, Paris: p24t; American Museum of Natural History/
Lynton Gardiner: p25br; Heather Angel: p 125tla, p 194brf;
Ardea: p 123tla; The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford,
L.1.5 Med: p35tl; Deni Bown: p94tl, p I OOtl, p 106tl, p 107tl,
p I 15tl, p I 17tl, p 12 Itl, p 149tl, p214tl, p226bl, p234tl, p259bl,
p274cl; Bridgeman Art Library: Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris:

p22tl; National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian
Institute, Permlet Art Resource: p46tr; By Permission of the
British Library: p22br; Neil Campbell Sharp: pi I9tl;j. Allan
Cash: p40b, p52.tr; Bruce Coleman: Atlantide Sdf: p241 tr;
Robert P Carr: p 102tl; Alain Compost: p97tl, p 192tr; Geoff
Dore: p288bl;J. Fennell: pi Obi; Michael Freeman: p93tl; Dennis
Green: p 148tl; Dr. Eckart Pott: p 150tl; Hans Reinhard: p69tl,
p87tl, p98tl, pl08tl, pl32tl; E.T. Archive/British Museum:
p43t; Mary Evans Picture Library/Wolf: p263c; © Steven
Foster 1996: p5 Itl, p59tl, p63tl, p68tl, p75tl, p95tl, p I 18tl,
p 122tl, p 136tl, p 139tl; Garden Picture Library: J.S. Sira: 58tla;
Giraudon/Bibl. Municipale, Reims: p34br; Robert Harding
Picture Library: p275bl; Richard Ashworth: p46tr; Holt
Studios International: Nigel Cattlin: p80tl, pl04cla, pl54tl,
p233tl, p262c, p264c; Bob Gibbons: p 18bl, p66tl, p 10 Itl;
Willem Harinclc pi 141, p247l, p257b, p271 cl; Rosie Mayer:
p 138tl; Primrose Peacock: p 184tr; Inga Spence: p238tc,
p250tr; Hutchison Library: p36b, p42c; Moser: pl94brf;
Icorec/Circa Photo Library: William Holtby: I9tl; Images
Colour Library: p20cl; The Charles Walker Collection:
p37tc; Images of India/Roderick Johnson: p39t; Tim Low:
pi I2tl; Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek: p20tr; Oxford
Scientific Library: G.l. Bernard: p 103tl; Sally Birch: p I 13tl; Deni
Bown: p60tl, p64tl, p77tl, p8 Itl, p I I 6tl, p 13 Itl, pl53tl, p203tr;
M.J. Coe: p85cla; Jack Dermid: p258cr; Geoff Kidd: p 146tl;

Chris Sharp: p9 Itl; Avril Ramage: p74tl; Photo Researchers
Inc./National Audubon Society/Alvin E. Staffan: pl45tl;
Photos Horticultural Picture Library: p82tl, pl43tl;
Premaphotos: pl44tl; Howard Rice: pi Itl; Scala/Duomo
Anagni: p21 b; Science Museum/Adrian Whicher: pl9br,
p45c; Science Photo Library: Moredun Animal Health Ltd:
p28cl; National Library of Medicine: p26tr; Harry Smith
Collection: p137tl, p90cla, p96tl, pi I Itl, p236bc; Still Pictures/
Mark Edwards: pi Ibl; Tony Stone Worldwide: Jacques
Jangoux: p29tl, pi80c; Wellcome Institute Library, London:
p23br, p50b. l23RF.com: Natalia Pauk I27cra; Alamy Images:
Carole Drake 120cla, WILDLIFE GmbH 120cra, Rezeda
Kostyleva 127crb; Dorling Kindersley: Hampton Court Flower
Show 222bl, RHS Wisley 185tc, 219bc, 221 bl; Getty Images:
Rosemary Calvert 28tr.

All other images © Dorling Kindersley

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